History of India (Ancient, Medieval, Modern)

🟢 Lite — Quick Review (1h–1d)

Rapid summary for last-minute revision before your exam.

Ancient India — Major Civilizations & Empires

• Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1300 BCE): Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Lothal. Town planning (grid pattern, drainage), weights & measures, bronze age, script (undeciphered). Declined around 1900 BCE (climate change, river course shifts).
• Vedic Period (1500-600 BCE): Rigveda composed. Transition from pastoral to agrarian society. Introduction of iron. Four Vedas, Upanishads beginning. Emergence of Janas and ganas.
• Mahajanapadas (600-400 BCE): 16 major kingdoms. Magadha (most powerful). Rise of Jainism (Mahavira) and Buddhism (Siddhartha Gautama). Ahimsa, Anathem.
• Maurya Empire (321-184 BCE): Chandragupta Maurya (first unified empire, guided by Chanakya/Kautilya, Arthashastra). Ashoka (Kalinga war → embraced Buddhism, rock edicts, dhamma). Administration: provinces, spies, state control of agriculture.
• Post-Mauryan: Sungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas (Deccan). Indo-Greeks (Demetrius, Menander). Kushans (Kanishka — great patron of Buddhism, Gandhara art).
• Gupta Empire (320-550 CE): Golden Age. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta (great conqueror, musician), Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya, court of nine gems — Kalidasa). Science: Aryabhata, Varahamihira. Arts: Ajanta, Ellora caves, Gupta temple architecture. Literature: Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta.
• Regional Dynasties: Harshavardhana (Harsha) — Kannauj assembly. Pallavas (Kanchipuram, Rath temples). Chalukyas (Badami). Rashtrakutas. Cholas (Tamil kingdom — great temple builders, bronze sculpture, overseas trade to SE Asia).

Medieval India — Sultanates & Mughal Empire

• Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526): Slave dynasty (Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish, Balban). Khilji dynasty (Jalal-ud-din Khilji, Alauddin Khilji — expanded to Deccan, market reforms). Tughlaq dynasty (Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq, Muhammad bin Tughlaq — experimental, token currency, shifting capital to Daulatabad). Sayyid and Lodi dynasties.
• Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646): Hampi (capital). Krishnadevaraya’s reign. Temple architecture, literary output (Telugu, Kannada). Defeated by Deccan Sultanates at Battle of Talikota (1565).
• Mughal Empire (1526-1857): Babur (First Battle of Panipat 1526), Humayun (defeated Sher Shah Suri). Akbar (expanded to Deccan, Rajput policy, Din-i-Ilahi, Fatehpur Sikri). Jahangir (Nur Jahan). Shah Jahan (Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid). Aurangzeb (Deccan campaigns, Jat/ Sikh/Palgarh revolts, imposing jaziya). Later Mughals — decline due toweak successors, Nawab autonomy, Maratha expansion.
• Marathas (1674-1818): Shivaji Maharaj (founder, swarajya, forts, navy). Peshwas (Bajirao I, Balaji Vishwanath, Nanasaheb Peshwa). Third Battle of Panipat (1761) — defeat by Ahmad Shah Durrani. Subsequently subdued by British.

Modern India — British Rule & Independence

• East India Company (1600-1857): Arrived 1608 (Surat). Battle of Plassey (1757) — Robert Clive, Mir Jafar. Battle of Buxar (1764) — defeated Mughal Emperor. Subsidiary Alliance (Lord Wellesley). 1857 — Revolt suppressed, Company rule ended.
• 1857 Revolt: First war of independence. Mangal Pandey, Bahadur Shah Zafar, Rani Laxmibai, Begum Hazrat Mahal. Causes: greased cartridges, land revenue changes, doctrine of lapse.
• British Raj (1858-1947): Crown direct rule. Viceroys: Canning, Lytton, Ripon, Curzon, Minto, Chelmsford. Indian National Congress (1885). Muslim League (1906).
• Freedom Movement: Partition of Bengal (1905, revoked 1911). Rowlatt Act (1919). Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919). Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22). Civil Disobedience Movement (1930 — Dandi Salt March). Quit India Movement (1942 — ‘Do or Die’).
• Gandhi’s Methods: Satyagraha, Ahimsa, Swadeshi, Champaran (1917 — indigo farmers), Kheda (1918 — peasants), Non-Cooperation (1921), Salt March (1930).
• Other Leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Lal Bal Pal), Lala Lajpat Rai (died after lathi charge), Bipin Chandra Pal, Subhas Chandra Bose (INA, Azad Hind Fauj, 1943), Bhagat Singh (1929 assembly bombing, executed 1931), Dr. Ambedkar (social justice, Scheduled Castes).
• Partition & Independence: Mountbatten Plan (June 1947). India Independence (August 15, 1947). Partition violence — 14Lakh+ killed, 15Lakh+ displaced. Radcliffe Award (Sir Cyril Radcliffe).
• Constitution: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Chairman of Drafting Committee). Adopted November 26, 1949. Enforced January 26, 1950. Features: Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic.

⚡ Exam Tips for XAT:

• XAT focuses on events with economic, political, and social significance — not just dates.
• Questions often link historical events to present-day implications (e.g., land revenue systems, administrative divisions, communal politics).
• Important: Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, but its features (town planning, trade) are important.
• Mughal administrative innovations and their legacy in modern governance are frequently tested.

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🟡 Standard — Regular Study (2d–2mo)

Standard content for students with a few days to months.

Ancient India — Detailed Study

Indus Valley Civilization — In Depth:

• Harappan script is the earliest writing system on the Indian subcontinent, undeciphered to date.
• Artifacts: Bronze dancer (Mohenjo-daro), Priest-king statue, Pashupati seals.
• Economy: Agricultural surplus, craft specialization, extensive trade (Mesopotamia, Oman, Bahrain).
• Lothal (Gujarat) — world’s earliest known dockyard.
• Dholavira (Gujarat) — unique water management system with series of reservoirs.
• Decline theories: Climate change, migration, river course changes (Saraswati drying up), epidemic.

Vedic Period:

• Early Vedic (1500-1000 BCE): Rigveda (10 books, 1,028 hymns). Focus on nature gods: Indra (thunder, war), Agni (fire), Soma. No idol worship. Yajna rituals. Rajasuya (king’s inauguration sacrifice).
• Later Vedic (1000-600 BCE): Transition to agricultural society. Land grants mentioned. Emergence of Varna (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra). Rituals become elaborate. Upanishads composed (Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya).
• Gotra and Pravara systems develop. Concept of Dharma emerges.
• Janas and Ganas: Clan-based republican polities co-existed with monarchies.

Buddhism and Jainism:

• Buddhism: Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Middle Way. Sangha established. Koutilya’s Arthashastra (if Buddhist?) — actually Chandragupta Maurya’s advisor.
• Jainism: Tirthankaras (24). Mahavira (24th Tirthankara, 599-527 BCE). Ahimsa paramount. Renunciation. Svetambara (white-clad) and Digambara (sky-clad) sects.
• Both religions challenged Vedic ritualism and Brahmanical supremacy.

Maurya Empire — Administrative System:

• Chandragupta Maurya: Met Alexander’s general Seleucus, got territory in exchange for 500 elephants.
• Chanakya’s Arthashastra: Treatise on statecraft, economics, foreign policy. Compares to Machiavelli’s The Prince.
• Ashoka’s Governance: Divided into four zones (Madhya, Pradesha, outer areas, border regions).dhamma Mahamatras (officials). Edicts (14 rock edicts, 7 pillar edicts). Kalinga War (261 BCE) — only war he fought after conversion.
• Ashoka’s Dhamma: Not a religion but ethical principles. Tolerance, non-violence, respect to elders, compassion for animals.

Post-Mauryan Innovations:

• Satavahanas: Early Andhra kings. Patronized Buddhism. Introduce potin coins. Remote-controlled trade with Rome (evidence: Roman coins found in South India).
• Kushan Empire: Kanishka (78-101 CE or 127-150 CE — Kanishka era starts year 1). Gandhara art (Buddha images — Greco-Roman influence) and Mathura art (indigenous Buddha images). Bamiyan Buddhas (Afghanistan).
• Gupta Period — Scientific Achievements:
  • Aryabhata (476-550 CE): Aryabhatiya — Earth rotates on its axis, predicts solar eclipses, calculates pi to 4 decimal places, proposes heliocentric model.
  • Varahamihira: Pancasiddhantika — astronomical treatise. Brihat Jataka (astrology).
  • Kalidasa: Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava.
  • Dhanavantari (medicine), Sushruta (Sushruta Samhita — surgery, ENT, ophthalmology).

Chola Empire (850-1279 CE):

• Early Cholas: Karikalan, Vijayalaya Chola revived Chola power from Thanjavur.
• Rajaraja I (985-1014): Built Brihadeeswara Temple (Thanjavur), conquered Sri Lanka (Cilappatikaram — island of Sri Lanka).
• Rajendra Chola (1014-1044): Built Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Chola navy dominated Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean trade.
• Trade with Southeast Asia: Srivijaya (Sumatra), Angkor Wat (Cambodia), Pagan (Myanmar). Cultural influence: Temples, bronze casting (Nataraja), dance (Bharatanatyam originated in temples).

Delhi Sultanate — Detailed:

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290):

• Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210): Started Qutub Minar. Ghazni’s slave, freed, became governor.
• Iltutmish (1211-1236): Most capable of Slave dynasty. Added stories to Qutub Minar. Introduced the IQTA system (precursor to Mansabdari). Balban (1236-1287) became Sultan after Iltutmish’s death (weak successors).
• Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246-1266): Placed on throne by Balban.
• Balban as Sultan (1266-1287): Strict justice, crackdown on bandits, Persianate court culture, Nashist.

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320):

• Jalal-ud-din Khilji (1290-1296): Conquered Gujarat (raw silk, horses). Allowed Mongol settlement.
• Alauddin Khilji (1296-1320): Captured Ranthambore, Chittor (Queen Padmini). Reduced water prices in Delhi. Market control: Diwan-i-Mustakhraj. Fixed prices of goods (barar). Intelligence network. Expanded to Deccan (Devagiri).
• Malik Kafur: Hindu general, captured Warangal (Kakatiyas), brought huge plunder.

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414):

• Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq (1320-1325): Built Tughlaqabad (Delhi).
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351): Brilliant but eccentric. Token currency (silver tanka replaced by bronze/ copper tokens — failed). Daulatabad experiment (shifted capital from Delhi to Devagiri, forced migration — reversed). Failed Mongol invasions. Khurasan expedition (preparations abandoned). Inconsistent taxation (raised hop, created resentment).
• Feroz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388): Built Feroz Shah Kotla. Irrigation projects (Feroz Shah’s canal from Sutlej). Repaired Qutub Minar. Income tax (Diwan-i-Khalifa).

Mughal Empire — In Depth:

Babur (1526-1530):

• First Battle of Panipat (1526): Defeated Ibrahim Lodi (10:1 odds). Used Ottoman cannons and tactics.
• Battle of Khanwa (1527): Defeated Rana Sanga (Rajput confederacy).
• Battle of Ghagra (1529): Defeated Umara and Afghangovernors.
• Memoirs: Baburnama (autobiography in Chagatai Turkish, translated by Gulbadan Begum).

Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556):

• Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545): Defeated Humayun. Built the Grand Trunk Road (GT Road — ancient route restructured). Established the Sur dynasty. Coinage (rupiya — origin of Indian rupee). Iqta system maintained. Forts: Qila-i-Kuhna mosque.

Akbar (1556-1605) — The Great:

• Expanded to include Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal, Deccan (Khandesh, Ahmadnagar).
• Rajput policy: Married Rajput princesses (Jodha Bai/Harka Bai — daughter of Raja of Amer). No Jaziya.
• Din-i-Ilahi (1582): Syncretic religion. 9 saints/prophets included (Zoroaster, Jesus, Moses, etc.). No temples converted.
• Revenue reforms: zabt (land revenue), zabti system (按时), Ain-i-Akbari (part of Akbarnama by Abul Fazl).
• Provincial administration: 12 Subahs (vsmans of Bengal, Bihar, etc).
• Mansabdari system: Mansabdars (nobles) rated in Zat (personal) and Sawar (cavalry) ranks. 1 to 10,000. 22 mansabdars at 5,000 and above. Paid in cash or land (jagir).
• Supported art: Akbarnama (by Abul Fazl), Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (by Jahangir).

Shah Jahan (1628-1658):

• Peak of Mughal architecture. Taj Mahal (memorial for Mumtaz Mahal). Red Fort (Delhi). Jama Masjid (Delhi). Moti Masjid (Agra). Shalimar Gardens (Lahore).
• War of succession (1658-1659): Aurangzeb vs Dara Shikoh (elder brother, liberal, Sufi).
• Behind: Dara Shikoh defeated at Samugarhat and Deora.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707):

• Policies leading to decline: Imposed Jaziya (stopped by Akbar, resumed), banned music in court, destroyed temples (Kashi Vishwanath, Mathura).
• Deccan campaigns: Extended to Karnataka (Siege of Jinji). Wars with Marathas ( Shivaji’s grandson Sambhaji executed 1689).
• Revolts: Jat (Mathura), Sikh (Guru Tegh Bahadur executed 1675, Guru Gobind Singh), Bundela (Chhatrasal), Rajput (Durgadas Rathore).
• No architectural legacy like earlier emperors.
• Costly wars stretched resources; Mansabdari system deteriorated; jagirdari crisis.

Later Mughals (1707-1857):

• Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712): Last effective Mughal emperor. Peace treaty with Marathas (chauth).
• Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719): Deposed by Sayyid brothers.
• Muhammad Shah (1719-1748): Necklace of pearls. Invasion by Nader Shah (1739 — sacked Delhi, took Peacock Throne).
• Ahmed Shah (1748-1754): Maratha encroachment.
• Alamgir II (1754-1759): Wholesale revenue assignments to the highest bidder.
• Shah Alam II (1759-1806): Real power in hands of Imad-ul-Mulk, Marathas, Jats.
• Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857): Last Mughal emperor. Deposed after 1857, exiled to Rangoon.

Maratha Confederacy:

• Shivaji (1647-1680): Born at Shivneri Fort. Appointed as Satin by Bijapur Sultan. Declared independence (1646). Coronation at Raigad (1659). Created Swarajya. Efficient administration: Ashtapradhan (8 ministers). Navy. Fort architecture.
• Peshwa Era (1713-1818): Bajirao Ballal Balaji Vishwanath (established Peshwa as hereditary). Nanasaheb Peshwa (Balaji Bajirao): Maratha power peaks. Third Battle of Panipat (1761) — Ahmad Shah Durrani (Afghans) defeat Marathas. Maratha confederacy fragmented.

Modern India — British Rule & Independence

East India Company to Crown Rule:

• After 1857, British Parliament passes Government of India Act 1858: Company rule ended, Crown assumed sovereignty.
• Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858): Assured no interference in religion. Indian princes’ rights protected.

Socio-Religious Reform Movements:

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833): Founder of Brahmo Samaj (1828). Fought Sati (Sati Regulation 1829), widow remarriage, women’s education. Monotheism.
• Dayananda Saraswati (1880s): Founder of Arya Samaj (1875). Back to Vedas. Gopal vm.
• Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902): Founded Ramakrishna Mission (1897). Chicago Parliament of Religions (1893). Advaita Vedanta. Method of service.
• Jyotirao Phule (1827-1890): Founded Satyashodhak Samaj (1873). Fought caste oppression. Pioneer of women’s education in Maharashtra.
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956): Scheduled Castes Federation (1942). Nominated to Round Table Conference. Negotiations with Muslim League on separate electorates (Poona Pact 1932 changed to joint electorate). Chairman of Drafting Committee of Constitution. Conversed to Buddhism in 1956 (Maharashtra).
• Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948): Champaran (1917 — indigo farmers). Kheda (1918 — malevolent). Khilafat and Non-Cooperation (1920). Salt March (1930). Quit India (1942). Emphasized: Satyagraha, Swadeshi, Khadi, Hindu-Muslim unity ( Khilafat), removing untouchability (Harijan).

Revolutionary Movements:

• Anushilan Samiti (1908): Calcutta. Aurobindo Ghosh.
• Gadar Party (1913): Hemachandra K. L. Lal. Planned to start uprising in Punjab.
• Kakori Train Robbery (1925): Rdg.
• Bhagat Singh (1907-1931): Assembly bombing (1929) with Batukeshwar Dutt. Hanged for killing Saunders (1928 Lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai).
• Chandrashekhar Azad: SaHEen.
• Surya Sen: Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930).

Moderate vs Extremist Phase of INC:

• Moderates (1885-1905): Gopal Krishna Gokhale, W.C. Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji. Methods: Petitions, resolutions, appeals. Demand: Self-government eventually.
• Extremists (1905-1919): Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Lal), Lala Lajpat Rai (Bal), Bipin Chandra Pal (Pal). Methods: Passive resistance, Swadeshi. Tilak: “Swaraj is my birthright.”

Communal Politics & Partition:

• 1909: Morley-Minto Reforms — separate electorates for Muslims (Minto). Muslims guaranteed representation.
• 1916: Lucknow Pact — Congress and Muslim League agreed on self-government; separate electorates accepted by Congress.
• 1932: Poona Pact — Ambedkar vs Gandhi on separate electorates. Gandhi opposed separate electorates for Dalits. Joint electorate with reserved seats agreed.
• 1940: Lahore Resolution (Muhammad Ali Jinnah) — Two-nation theory demand for separate Muslim homeland.
• 1946: Direct Action Day (August 16) — Muslim League call. Calcutta Killings. Violence escalates.
• 1947: Partition. Radcliffe Award. 14 August 1947 — Pakistan created. 15 August 1947 — India independent.

Constitution Making:

• Objective Resolution (December 1946) — Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Drafting Committee: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Chairman), Drafted by Sir Benegal Narsing Rau (Constitutional Advisor).
• Features: Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic. FRs, DPSPs, Fundamental Duties (added by 42nd Amendment, 1976).
• Original 395 articles, 22 parts, 8 schedules. Amended 100+ times.

⚡ XAT-Specific Focus:

• XAT often asks about historical events’ economic and administrative consequences — not just who/what/when, but why it matters.
• Linkages: Land revenue systems (Zabti → later British revenue systems → Zamindari), administrative divisions (Mughal Subahs → British provinces → modern states).
• The Mughal administrative system, particularly the Mansabdari and Iqta systems, is important for understanding governance evolution.
• Socio-religious reform movements and their contribution to nationalism — be ready to match movements to leaders.
• Understanding the nuances of partition (why, how, consequences) is essential for any XAT aspirant.

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🔴 Extended — Deep Study (3mo+)

Comprehensive coverage for students on a longer study timeline.

Historiography — How History is Written

• Ancient Indian History Sources:
  • Archaeological: Excavations at Harappa, Lothal, Dholavira. Inscriptions: Ashoka’s edicts (14 rock edicts, 7 pillar edicts), Junagarh (Rudradaman I), Allahabad Pillar (Samudragupta).
  • Literary: Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Buddhist Jataka stories, Jain texts.
  • Foreign Accounts: Megasthenes (Indica), Hiuen Tsang (Si-yu-ki), Fahien (Fo-kwo-ki), Ibn Battuta (Mamaliks), Al-Biruni.

Archaeological Periods:

• Stone Age: Paleolithic (2M-10,000 BCE), Mesolithic (10,000-4000 BCE), Neolithic (4000-1500 BCE).
• Bronze Age: Indus Valley Civilization.
• Iron Age: Vedic period, Mahajanapadas.

Debates on Ancient India:

• Aryan Problem: Indigenous vs. Out-of-India vs. migration/invasion (Max Müller — now largely discredited). Invaders vs. migrants debate. Out-of-India theory vs. Anatolian hypothesis.
• ** Indus Script:** Over 4,000 artifacts, undeciphered. Various decipherment claims (Iravatham Mahadevan’s Tamil hypothesis). Dravidian vs. Indo-Aryan language family.

Medieval India — Economic & Social History

Agriculture & Land Revenue:

• Under Delhi Sultanate: IQTA system (military pay land assignments). Peasants paid land revenue (Kharaj) — 1/2 to 1/3 of produce.
• Under Mughals: zabt (land revenue) system. Land measured by GIS (zero), divided into circles (dastur). Rates: Polaj (best), Parauti (twice cultivated), Chachar (once in 3-4 years), Banjarat (once in 5+ years). Malikana (cultivator’s share).

Trade & Commerce:

• India was major global trader. Textiles (muslin, calico), spices, indigo, opium (exported to China).
• Caravanserais on trade routes. Mandis and Suwarnagiri (goldsmiths).
• European trading companies: Portuguese (1498), Dutch (1602), English/East India Company (1600), French (1664).
• Trade deficit: Silver and gold flowed into India (favorable balance of trade).

Social Condition:

• Caste rigidities increased under British.
• Position of women: Sati (suppressed 1829), widow immolation, purdah system, no education.
• Bhakti movement challenged Brahminical orthodoxy (Namdev, Tukaram, Kabir, Guru Nanak — founder of Sikhism).

Military Technology & Warfare:

• Introduction of firearms: Mughals used matchlock firearms. Babur used Ottoman cannons.
• Mansabdari: Military and civil service combined.
• Deccan Sultanates: Early adopters of firearms (Pistols, muskets).
• Naval capabilities declined under Mughals (Shivaji had a formidable navy).

Modern India — Colonial Policies & Impact

Land Revenue Systems:

• Permanent Settlement (1793): Cornwallis. Fixed revenue in perpetuity. Created Zamindars (landlords) as property owners. Zamindars becameabsentee landlords, peasants became tenants at will. Led to Zamindari system.
• Ryotwari (1820): Munro (Madras Presidency). Direct settlement with cultivators (Ryots). No intermediary Zamindars. Revenue demand high, led to peasant indebtedness.
• Mahalwari (1833): Holt Mackenzie. Village-level settlement. Village community collectively responsible. In Punjab, NWFP.

Economic Impact of British Rule:

• Deindustrialization: Indian textiles replaced by British manufactures. Manchester and Lancashire mills outcompeted Indian weavers.
• Drain of wealth: Dadabhai Naoroji (Drain Theory), RC Dutt further developed it.
• Commercialization of agriculture: Cash crops (indigo, cotton, opium) replaced food crops.
• Famines: Great Bengal Famine (1769-70) — 10 million died; Great Famine (1876-78) — 6.5 million died; Partition Famine (1943) — 2-3 million died.

Education Policy:

• Wood’s Despatch (1854): Recommended mass education. Missionary schools, colleges.
• Hunter Commission (1882): More local control.
• Murray (Lord Minto) Report (1904): Government-run universities.
• Indian Universities Act (1904): Increased government control.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Moved for primary education in 1912.
• Satyamev Jayate (National Mission, 2021): Universalization of education.

Constitutional & Administrative Reforms:

• 1882: Ripon’s William Wilson.
• 1892: Indian Councils Act — expanded legislative councils.
• 1909: Morley-Minto Reforms — separate electorates for Muslims (Minto).
• 1919: Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act 1919) — Dyarchy in provinces. Reserved and transferred subjects.
• 1935: Government of India Act 1935 — Federation of India, provincial autonomy.
• 1946: Cabinet Mission Plan — proposed United India.

Nationalism & Political Organizations:

Formation of INC (1885):

• A.O. Hume (retired British official) + W.C. Banerjee.
• Sessions: Calcutta (1885), Bombay (1886), Madras (1887).
• Moderates dominated until 1905.

Swadeshi Movement (1905):

• Partition of Bengal (Lord Curzon, 1905) — divided Bengal (Bengal proper + Assam).
• Organized protests: Anti-Partition movement. Boycott of British goods. Nationalization of education.
• Extremist leaders rose to prominence.

Gandhi’s Major Movements:

1. Champaran (1917): First success. Indigo farmers in Bihar against European planters. Civil disobedience.
2. Kheda (1918): Peasants in Gujarat appealing for revenue relief after crop failure.
3. Non-Cooperation (1920-22): After Jallianwala Bagh, Khilafat. Congress aimed for Swaraj within one year if non-cooperation. Students left government schools, lawyers gave up practice, bonfire of foreign clothes.
4. Civil Disobedience (1930): Dandi Salt March (388 km). Broke salt monopoly. 11 demands (delivered at Dandi).
5. Quit India (1942): ‘Do or Die’. Mass agitation. Gandhi’s ‘Quit India’ call. Over 60,000 arrests.

Role of Muslim League:

• 1906: All-India Muslim League founded (Dacca, Nawab Salimullah).
• 1916: Lucknow Pact with Congress.
• 1940: Lahore Resolution (Two-nation theory).
• 1947: Creation of Pakistan.

Subhas Chandra Bose & INA:

• 1939: Congress president (defeated Gandhi’s candidate).
• Escaped house arrest (1941). Reached Germany. Formed Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army) with Japanese support.
• 1943: Proclaimed Provisional Government of Azad Hind.
• Overthrew British Indian Army morale in Southeast Asia.

Communal Award & Poona Pact:

• 1932: British PM Ramsay MacDonald’s Communal Award — separate electorates for depressed classes.
• Gandhi opposed at Yerwada Jail. Fast unto death.
• Poona Pact: Joint electorates, reserved seats for depressed classes. Ambedkar accepted.

Partition & Independence:

• Mountbatten Plan (June 1947): Partition of British India into two dominions (India, Pakistan). Princely states to join either dominion.
• Radcliffe Award: Cyril Radcliffe (British judge, sole member) — drew boundary between India and Pakistan. Bengal and Punjab divided.
• Massacre: communal riots during partition — estimated 200,000 to 2,000,000 killed (sources vary). 15 million displaced.

Constitutional Development:

• 1946: Objective Resolution by Nehru — preamble framework.
• 1947: Indian Independence Act (British Parliament) — ended British rule.
• 1950: Constitution of India came into force (26 January — Republic Day).

Key Committees & Commissions:

• Government of India Acts: 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford), 1935 (provincial autonomy).
• K.C. Wheare: Federal Structure.
• Sir Ivor Jennings: Democratic constitutionalism.

Historical Figures & Their Contributions:

Leader	Key Contribution
Raja Ram Mohan Roy	Brahmo Samaj, women’s rights, Sati abolition
Swami Vivekananda	Ramakrishna Mission, global spread of Vedanta
Bal Gangadhar Tilak	Swadeshi, nationalistic education, Extremist leader
Gopal Krishna Gokhale	Moderate leader, spiritual teacher of Gandhi
Lala Lajpat Rai	Punjab National Bank, AILU, opposed Simon Commission
Bipin Chandra Pal	Swadeshi, Lal Bal Pal
Annie Besant	Theosophical Society, Home Rule League
Bhagat Singh	Revolutionary, socialist ideology
Dr. Ambedkar	Constitution, social justice, Mahars’ rights
Subhas Chandra Bose	INA, Azad Hind Fauj, diplomatic initiatives

Important Battles & Events:

Event	Year	Significance
Battle of Plassey	1757	Beginning of British political power
Battle of Buxar	1764	Confirmed British control over Bengal
Battle of Panipat (1st)	1526	Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi
Battle of Panipat (2nd)	1556	Akbar defeats Hemu
Battle of Panipat (3rd)	1761	Marathas defeated by Ahmad Shah Durrani
Battle of Waterloo	1815	End of Napoleonic Wars, global British dominance
1857 Revolt	1857	First war of independence
Jallianwala Bagh	1919	Rowlatt Act protests, hundreds killed
Chauri Chaura	1922	Incident led to Gandhi suspending non-cooperation
Dandi March	1930	Broke British salt monopoly

⚡ XAT-Specific Extended Preparation:

• Historical administrative systems: How did Sultanate and Mughal land revenue evolve into British systems? What are the continuities and changes?
• Caste and social movements: Understand the intersection of caste, colonial policy, and reform movements.
• Understand the Gandhi-Patel-Nehru relationship and how it shaped independent India.
• Read: India’s Ancient Past (R.S. Sharma), History of Medieval India (Satish Chandra), India’s Struggle for Independence (Bipan Chandra).
• Current relevance: Land acquisition laws, zamindari abolition, temple-mosque disputes — all have historical roots.
• Watch for questions connecting 19th century social reforms to present-day affirmative action debates.

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