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Parliament Lok Sabha Rajya Sabha Legislative Process

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Parliament: Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and Legislative Process

The Parliament of India is the supreme legislative body of the Union, consisting of the President and two Houses: the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States). Together, these three constitute the Parliament of India — the temple of democracy where the will of the people is translated into law. The Parliament is established under Part V of the Constitution (Articles 79–122), which defines its composition, powers, and procedures. The Lok Sabha represents the people directly through adult universal suffrage — every citizen above 18 who is not disqualified has the right to vote in constituency-based elections. The Rajya Sabha represents the states and Union Territories, with members elected by the elected members of state legislative assemblies through a single transferable vote system, and 12 nominated members appointed by the President for their distinguished contributions to art, literature, science, and social service.

The legislative process in India is bicameral at the Union level — meaning there are two Houses — but the dominance of the Lok Sabha in financial matters and the overall parliamentary system gives the Lok Sabha primacy in most areas. The Rajya Sabha, however, has equal legislative power with the Lok Sabha in most matters (except money bills and certain constitutional amendment procedures) and serves as a revising chamber for legislation coming from the Lok Sabha. The legislative process involves multiple stages — introduction, first reading, committee stage, report stage, third reading, transmission to the other House, presidential assent — each with its own rules and conventions. Understanding this process, the types of bills, and the differences between the two Houses is essential for the RAS examination, where questions frequently test candidates on whether a particular function belongs to Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha, and what happens when the two Houses disagree.

The Parliamentary privileges (Article 105) grant each House certain immunities and powers that are essential for the free functioning of legislative democracy. These include the power to regulate its internal affairs, the power to punish members for contempt, and freedom of speech in the House (subject to the Constitution and rules). The 45th Constitutional Amendment Act (1961) added provisions relating to the Speaker’s role in governing House proceedings. For the RAS examination, the key is understanding that parliamentary privileges are not absolute — they are subject to judicial review in cases where they conflict with fundamental rights or the basic structure of the Constitution.

🟢 Lite — Quick Review (1h–1d)

Rapid summary for last-minute revision before your exam.

Parliament of India is the supreme legislative body of the Union, composed of the President, Lok Sabha (House of the People), and Rajya Sabha (Council of States). The entire parliamentary system is governed by Part V of the Constitution (Articles 79–122). The Lok Sabha represents citizens directly through adult universal suffrage, while the Rajya Sabha represents states and Union Territories through indirect election by state MLAs. This basic distinction — direct democracy versus federal representation — is the foundation of everything else you need to know about Parliament.

Lok Sabha — Key Facts:

  • Maximum strength: 552 (530 states + 20 UTs + 2 Anglo-Indian nominated). As of the 2008 delimitation, 543 elected members.
  • Members serve a 5-year term, subject to dissolution before the term ends.
  • Election is First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) — highest votes win, no majority required.
  • Qualification: citizen of India, minimum 25 years of age, not holding any office of profit.
  • Speaker presides over the House, maintains order, and decides all procedural questions. The Speaker’s ruling is final within the House.
  • Money Bill procedure: can only be introduced in Lok Sabha. Rajya Sabha has 14 days to return with recommendations — nothing more.

Rajya Sabha — Key Facts:

  • Maximum strength: 250 (238 elected by state MLAs + 12 nominated by President).
  • Elected by proportional representation with single transferable vote (STV) — each MLA ranks candidates in order of preference.
  • Permanent House — never dissolved. One-third members retire every 2 years in a staggered rotation.
  • Vice President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha (Article 64). She does not vote normally but has a casting vote in case of a tie. The Deputy Chairman is elected from among RS members.
  • The 12 nominated members are eminent persons in art, literature, science, or social service — they participate fully but cannot vote in Presidential elections (only elected MPs vote for President).

Legislative Process — Quick Overview:

  • Ordinary Bill: introduced in either House (not Lok Sabha-exclusive). Goes through First Reading, Second Reading, Committee Stage, Report Stage, Third Reading in each House, then Presidential Assent.
  • Money Bill: introduced only in Lok Sabha. Rajya Sabha must return within 14 days with recommendations. Lok Sabha accepts or rejects recommendations but cannot amend. Speaker’s certification is final.
  • Joint Sitting (Article 108): President summons when Rajya Sabha delays an ordinary bill beyond 6 months or rejects it. Both Houses sit together, vote as one body. Has happened only 3 times — Dowry Prohibition Act 1961, Banking Service Commission Repeal 1977, Prevention of Terrorism Bill 2002.

Key Articles for Quick Revision:

  • Articles 79–80: Composition of Parliament (Lok Sabha 543, Rajya Sabha 250 max)
  • Article 84: Qualifications for Lok Sabha membership — citizen, 25+ years, not office of profit
  • Article 87: President’s special address to Parliament at the beginning of each session
  • Article 88: Ministers’ right to speak in both Houses — a Minister from Lok Sabha can participate in Rajya Sabha debates and vice versa
  • Article 93: Election of Speaker by Lok Sabha from among its members
  • Article 100: Voting in Parliament — quorum is one-fifth of total membership; in case of equality of votes, the presiding officer casts the deciding vote
  • Article 105: Parliamentary privileges — freedom of speech, immunity from court proceedings during sessions, right to regulate internal affairs, contempt powers
  • Articles 107–111: Legislative process from bill introduction to Presidential Assent
  • Article 312: Rajya Sabha can create new All-India Services by resolution supported by two-thirds of members present and voting. Used only twice (IAS 1948, IPS 1954).

⚡ Exam Tip: The most frequently tested distinction: Money Bill vs. Ordinary Bill. Rajya Sabha cannot pass, reject, or amend a Money Bill — only recommend within 14 days. Lok Sabha’s version finally prevails. This single rule answers a large proportion of RAS parliamentary questions.

Common Mistakes to Avoid:

  • Thinking Rajya Sabha can reject or amend Money Bills — it cannot.
  • Thinking Rajya Sabha is dissolved — it is permanent.
  • Confusing the Speaker’s role with the Chairman of Rajya Sabha — Speaker is for Lok Sabha, Vice President (through Article 64) is Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
  • Forgetting that Presidential Assent cannot be permanently withheld — if Parliament repasses a bill after Presidential return, the President must give assent.

🟡 Standard — Regular Study (2d–2mo)

Standard content for students with a few days to months.

1. Lok Sabha — Composition, Election, and Key Offices

Composition (Articles 79–82): The Lok Sabha (House of the People) is the lower house of Parliament and the primary representative body of the Indian people. Its maximum strength is 552 members — 530 from states, 20 from Union Territories, and up to 2 nominated from the Anglo-Indian community by the President if that community is felt to be inadequately represented. Following the 2008 delimitation (based on the 2001 Census), the actual elected strength stands at 543 members. Each member represents a single geographical constituency using the First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) electoral system — the candidate who secures the highest number of votes in a constituency wins, even if they do not achieve an absolute majority. This is the same system used in the United Kingdom and is designed to produce clear winners and stable governments.

The Delimitation Commission, established after every Census, redraws constituency boundaries to ensure roughly equal populations across constituencies. The 84th Amendment (2001) and 87th Amendment (2003) froze delimitation until 2026 — a politically significant decision because states with high population growth (particularly in the BIMARVU belt) are currently underrepresented in Lok Sabha relative to their actual populations, while low-growth states (especially in the South) are comparatively overrepresented.

Qualifications (Article 84): To be eligible for Lok Sabha membership, a person must be: a citizen of India; not less than 25 years of age; of sound mind; not insolvent; and not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or any State government. The phrase “office of profit” is deliberately broad but has been interpreted by courts to exclude certain ceremonial or non-remunerative positions.

Disqualifications (Article 84–85): Disqualifications include: being convicted of certain criminal offences (especially electoral offences under the Representation of the People Act, 1951); having been found guilty of corrupt practices in elections; being a member of a foreign legislature; and holding an office of profit. The President declares disqualifications under Article 83, acting on the Election Commission’s advice.

The Speaker (Articles 93–94): The Speaker is elected by Lok Sabha from among its own members, immediately after the House is constituted. The Speaker’s role is multi-dimensional: she presides over the House, maintains order, interprets the rules, and decides all procedural questions. Importantly, the Speaker’s rulings on whether a bill is a Money Bill (Article 109) are final and not subject to judicial review, though courts can intervene if the decision is mala fide. The Speaker remains in office until the Lok Sabha is dissolved, even if the government changes. Notable Speakers include GMC Bhave, Bal Ram Jhakar, Somnath Chatterjee, and Om Birla.

Key Motions in Lok Sabha:

  • No-Confidence Motion (Rule 198): Expresses lack of confidence in the Council of Ministers. If passed, the government must resign. Requires support of 50 members minimum. The first no-confidence motion in independent India was moved in 1963 by Acharya Kripalani against Nehru.
  • Adjournment Motion: Moves to adjourn House proceedings to discuss a definite matter of urgent public importance. Highly privileged but rarely admitted — the defect is that it interrupts normal business and requires the Speaker’s consent.
  • Censure Motion: Differs from no-confidence in that it rebukes the government without specifically demanding resignation. Can be moved against a specific minister or the whole government.
  • Privilege Motion: Raised when a member’s parliamentary privilege has been infringed.

Money Bill Procedure (Articles 109, 117): A Money Bill is defined under Article 110 as one that exclusively contains provisions dealing with: imposition, abolition, remission, alteration, or regulation of taxation; borrowing of money by the Union government; Consolidated Fund expenditure; or ancillary matters. The Speaker of Lok Sabha certifies whether a bill is a Money Bill — this certification is final. Money Bills can only be introduced in Lok Sabha (not Rajya Sabha). After Lok Sabha passes a Money Bill, it goes to Rajya Sabha, which has only 14 days to return it with recommendations. Rajya Sabha cannot reject or amend a Money Bill — it can only recommend. Lok Sabha may accept or reject any or all recommendations and then passes the bill again. The final version of a Money Bill is always Lok Sabha’s version. Rajya Sabha’s recommendations are advisory only.

2. Rajya Sabha — Composition, Election, and Powers

Composition (Article 80): The Rajya Sabha (Council of States) represents the states and Union Territories of India. It has a maximum of 250 members — 238 elected by the elected members of state legislative assemblies, and 12 nominated by the President. The Fourth Schedule to the Constitution allocates Rajya Sabha seats to each state based on population, with a minimum of 1 seat for every state regardless of population size. For example, Uttar Pradesh has 31 seats, Rajasthan has 10, Sikkim has 1, and Puducherry has 1. This weighted allocation means smaller states are not completely swamped by larger ones in the electoral college.

Election by Proportional Representation with Single Transferable Vote (STV): The election of Rajya Sabha members from each state is conducted by proportional representation using the single transferable vote system — the same system used for Presidential elections in India. Each elected MLA from the state votes by ranking candidates in order of preference. A candidate needs a specific quota of first-preference votes to be elected, and votes are transferred from eliminated candidates to remaining candidates until all seats are filled. This system is designed to ensure minority representation — a party with sufficient votes can ensure its candidates win even if they are not the most popular overall.

Chairman and Deputy Chairman (Articles 89–91): The Vice President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha under Article 64. The Vice President does not have a vote in Rajya Sabha (unlike the Speaker of Lok Sabha who does vote), but can exercise a casting vote in the event of a tie. The Deputy Chairman is elected by Rajya Sabha from among its own members. If the Chairman (VP) is absent, the Deputy Chairman presides.

Permanent House: Rajya Sabha is a permanent body — it is never dissolved. One-third of its members retire every two years in a staggered process (unlike Lok Sabha which is entirely dissolved). This continuity ensures institutional memory and means Rajya Sabha always exists to represent the states, even during periods when Lok Sabha has been dissolved or is not in session.

Key Differences between Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha:

  • Lok Sabha is directly elected by citizens; Rajya Sabha is indirectly elected by state MLAs (plus 12 nominations).
  • Lok Sabha is subject to dissolution (5-year term); Rajya Sabha is permanent with staggered retirements.
  • Lok Sabha has primacy in Money Bills; Rajya Sabha has only recommendatory power over Money Bills.
  • Lok Sabha has 543 elected members; Rajya Sabha has 238 elected + 12 nominated.
  • Financial power (budget) originates in Lok Sabha; Rajya Sabha can only discuss and recommend.
  • Government is collectively responsible to Lok Sabha, not Rajya Sabha.
  • Vice President is Chairman of Rajya Sabha; elected Speaker is for Lok Sabha.
  • Minimum age for Lok Sabha is 25; for Rajya Sabha it is 30.

Powers of Rajya Sabha: Rajya Sabha has equal legislative power with Lok Sabha in most areas — it can reject, amend, or delay ordinary bills. It cannot reject or amend Money Bills. It serves as a revising chamber that can send bills back to Lok Sabha for reconsideration, though Lok Sabha can override Rajya Sabha’s objections after a sufficient delay. Rajya Sabha also plays a critical role in the creation of new All-India Services (Article 312) — a resolution supported by two-thirds of members present and voting can create a new service. This power was used to create the Indian Administrative Service (1948) and Indian Police Service (1954) but has lain dormant since.

3. Legislative Process — Detailed Analysis

Ordinary Bill — Step by Step:

  • Introduction: Bill can be introduced in either House by any member. Not a Money Bill.
  • First Reading: Bill is published in the Gazette. No debate at this stage.
  • Second Reading: General discussion on the bill’s principles. Members can move amendments.
  • Committee Stage: Bill is referred to a Select Committee (for one bill) or a Standing Committee (for broader policy). This is where detailed scrutiny happens — witnesses may be called, expert opinions sought.
  • Report Stage: Committee reports back with its recommendations. Further amendments can be moved.
  • Third Reading: Final vote on the bill as a whole. No amendments permitted at this stage except purely verbal ones.
  • Transmission to other House: Same process repeats in the second House.
  • Presidential Assent (Article 111): The bill is presented to the President, who may give assent, withhold assent (not permanently), or return it once for reconsideration. If Parliament repasses the bill, the President must give assent. Money Bills cannot be returned by the President.

Money Bill vs. Finance Bill vs. Ordinary Bill:

  • A Money Bill (Article 110) is a bill that deals only with matters listed in Article 110 — taxation, Consolidated Fund expenditure, borrowing. Certified by the Speaker. Introduced only in Lok Sabha. Rajya Sabha has 14 days to recommend only. Cannot be returned by President.
  • A Finance Bill is an ordinary bill that contains financial provisions but does not meet the strict criteria of a Money Bill. It is introduced in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha can fully participate in its passage — it can reject, amend, or pass it. GST implementation came through a Finance Bill.
  • An Ordinary Bill can be introduced in either House. Both Houses have equal legislative power. Joint sitting applies if RS delays beyond 6 months.

Joint Sitting (Article 108): When Rajya Sabha either rejects an ordinary bill or keeps it pending for more than six months, the President may (after consulting the Chairman of Rajya Sabha and Speaker of Lok Sabha) summon a joint sitting of both Houses. In a joint sitting, members of both Houses sit together and vote as one body. A bill is deemed passed if approved by a majority of all members present and voting. Joint sitting has been convened only three times in Indian history: for the Dowry Prohibition Act 1961, the Banking Service Commission (Repeal) Bill 1978, and the Prevention of Terrorism Bill 2002. Joint sitting does NOT apply to Money Bills or Constitutional Amendment Bills.

Article 312 and Official Language Commission Connection: Article 312 is primarily about All-India Services, but it has a significant connection to the official language debate. When the Hindi language question was being debated in the 1960s, there were concerns that non-Hindi speaking states would be disadvantaged if Hindi became the sole official language. The 7th Constitutional Amendment Act (1956) was connected to Article 312 discussions about ensuring that new All-India Services (which would operate across all states) could function effectively in multiple languages. The Official Languages Act of 1963 (passed after prolonged debate in both Houses, with Rajya Sabha playing a significant revising role) provided for the continued use of English for official purposes alongside Hindi, ensuring that states not proficient in Hindi would not be marginalised. The Article 312 connection to official language comes through the understanding that any future All-India Service created would need to operate in all scheduled languages — a matter that Rajya Sabha has debated extensively given its federal composition.

Control Over Executive — Mechanisms: Parliament exercises executive control through several institutional mechanisms that the RAS student must know: Question Hour (first hour of every sitting — answers must be provided in the same session or carried to next session); Zero Hour (12:00 to 1:00 PM, Indian parliamentary innovation since 1952, allows members to raise urgent matters without prior notice — not formalised in rules but universally practiced); Calling Attention Motion (draws minister’s attention to a matter of urgent public importance); Adjournment Motion (interrupts agenda to discuss urgent matter — requires Speaker’s consent and 50 member support); No-Confidence Motion (requires 50 members, if passed government must resign — no limit on how many can be moved in a session); and Motion of Thanks (after Presidential Address, Lok Sabha discusses and votes on the Motion of Thanks — losing it has political consequences equivalent to a confidence vote even if not technically one).

4. Presidential Assent and Ordinance Power

Presidential Assent (Article 111): Every bill that has passed both Houses of Parliament must be presented to the President for assent. The President’s options are: give assent (bill becomes an Act immediately); withhold assent (constitutionally questionable to do permanently — the President should give reasons and return the bill); or return the bill once for reconsideration. The return option is important: if Parliament passes the bill again (with or without changes), the President must give assent. The only exception — the President cannot return a Money Bill. The President’s power here is a limited conditional veto, not an absolute veto. This differs sharply from the US President who has a more powerful veto and can pocket veto (simply refuse to act).

Ordinance-Making Power (Article 123): When Parliament is not in session and the President is satisfied that circumstances exist requiring immediate action, she may promulgate an ordinance. An ordinance has the same force as an Act but must be laid before Parliament within six weeks of its reassembly. If Parliament does not pass it as an Act within that window, the ordinance expires. The Supreme Court in DC Kathiya vs. State of Gujarat (2003) held that ordinances cannot be used to make substantive changes that would normally require Parliament’s approval — they are for genuine emergencies only. Repeated re-promulgation of ordinances without placing them before Parliament has been held unconstitutional (RC Cooper vs. Union of India, 1970).

🔴 Extended — Deep Study (3mo+)

Comprehensive coverage for students on a longer study timeline.

1. Parliamentary Privileges — Articles 105 and 194

Article 105 grants parliamentary privileges to both Houses of Parliament and their members:

  1. Freedom of speech in Parliament: No member can be questioned in any court for anything said in the House (this is absolute immunity). However, this freedom is subject to the rules and regulations of each House and the authority of the Presiding Officer.
  2. Immunity from court proceedings: No member can be arrested during Parliament sessions or 40 days before commencement and after conclusion of sessions — this is a traditional parliamentary privilege.
  3. Right to regulate internal affairs: Each House can punish its own members for breach of privilege — including suspension or expulsion.
  4. Contempt powers: Each House can punish persons outside the House for contempt — publishing false or scandalous statements reflecting on House proceedings is contempt.

The scope of parliamentary privileges has been litigated extensively:

In Keshav Singh vs. Speaker, UP Legislative Assembly (1965), the Supreme Court held that parliamentary privileges cannot override fundamental rights under Article 20 or Article 21. In M.S.M. Pillai vs. Stanley (1994), the Court held that the publication of parliamentary proceedings in a newspaper is privileged — the press can report what happens in Parliament without being sued for defamation. In Poolean Swada vs. Union of India, the Court clarified the limits of the privilege: it cannot be used to suppress evidence of corruption or misconduct by members.

The National Judicial Appointments Commission case (2016) confirmed that judicial independence is part of the basic structure and Parliament cannot erode it through legislative means — this has implications for the scope of parliamentary privileges in judicial appointments matters.

State Legislature Privileges (Article 194): State legislatures have privileges similar to Parliament — but the privileges are defined differently for each state by their own rules and procedures, subject to the Constitution. In most states, the Governor plays the same role as the President does for Parliament.

2. The Council of States vs. the House of the People — An Assessment

The Rajya Sabha’s effectiveness as a revising chamber has been questioned since its inception. The founding fathers — particularly Ambedkar — argued that the Rajya Sabha would provide a forum for non-partisan debate and give voice to intellectual and professional leaders who may not be suited for direct electoral politics. In practice, the Rajya Sabha has been criticised for:

  1. Being a refuge for politicians who have lost Lok Sabha elections or are appointed as a reward for party loyalty
  2. Not adequately representing states — the nominated members are appointed by the President on the advice of the Union government, which means they may not represent states’ interests
  3. Having limited real power — except in matters where it has equal legislative power (like ordinary bills) or special power (Article 312, constitutional amendments), it cannot substantially block legislation
  4. Being a rubber stamp when the same party controls both Houses, functioning as a post office for Lok Sabha bills

However, the Rajya Sabha has played a significant role in certain contexts:

  • The debate on the 42nd Amendment (1976) was more substantive in Rajya Sabha
  • Constitutional amendment debates have been more detailed in Rajya Sabha
  • The prevention of hasty legislation through deliberate delays (within the 6-month rule) has forced the government to reconsider provisions
  • Committee work — the Rajya Sabha’s Department-related Standing Committees have produced substantive reports on various legislative proposals

3. Constitutional Amendment Process

Article 368 provides two procedures for constitutional amendment:

Procedure I (Simple Majority in Parliament): Certain amendments only require a simple majority of members present and voting — no special majority, no ratification by states. These include: (a) creation of new states (Article 2); (b) alteration of boundaries; (c) changes to the Second Schedule (salaries of constitutional functionaries); (d) changes consequential to Article 2/3 laws.

Procedure II (Special Majority): Most amendments require: (a) support from two-thirds of members present and voting in each House; AND (b) a majority of the total membership of each House (not just those present). This is a higher threshold than a simple majority.

Procedure III (Special Majority + State Ratification): Some amendments require the special parliamentary majority AND ratification by at least half of the states (state legislatures). These concern: (a) election of President; (b) Supreme Court and High Court judges’ appointment; (c) distribution of legislative powers ( Seventh Schedule); (d) representation of states in Parliament; (e) any amendment to the federal structure; (f) the amendment provision itself (Article 368).

The Doctrine of Basic Structure from Kesavananda Bharati (1973) adds an overarching limitation: no amendment can destroy the basic structure of the Constitution, even if it satisfies the procedural requirements of Article 368. This means amendments can change any provision except those that form the basic structure — but what exactly constitutes the basic structure has been left to the Supreme Court to determine on a case-by-case basis.

Historical Amendments — Key Ones for RAS:

  • 1st Amendment (1951): Added Articles 31A–31D; Ninth Schedule; narrowed right to property; validated zamindari abolition laws
  • 7th Amendment (1956): Replaced original 395 articles with current numbering; established the Seventh Schedule
  • 24th Amendment (1971): Asserted Parliament’s power to amend any provision; declared amendment not a “law” for Article 13 purposes
  • 42nd Amendment (1976): Added socialist, secular, integrity to Preamble; made DPSP more enforceable; added Article 31C
  • 44th Amendment (1978): Changed emergency from “internal disturbance” to “armed rebellion”; protected Article 21 during emergency; reversed some 42nd Amendment provisions
  • 61st Amendment (1989): Reduced voting age from 21 to 18
  • 73rd/74th Amendments (1992): Added Sixth Schedule protection for panchayats and municipalities; made them directly constitutional
  • 86th Amendment (2002): Added Article 21A (right to education); Article 51A(k) (fundamental duty to education)
  • 101st Amendment (2016): Introduced GST and Article 279A; created GST Council
  • 103rd Amendment (2019): EWS 10% reservation

⚠️ Exam Tips and Common Traps:

  1. Money Bill vs. Financial Bill: A Money Bill (Article 109) specifically deals with taxation, public expenditure, or Consolidated Fund matters — the Speaker certifies it. A Finance Bill is an ordinary bill that deals with financial matters but doesn’t meet the strict definition of a Money Bill. Rajya Sabha CAN amend Finance Bills, but NOT Money Bills.
  2. Presidential return of Bill: The President can return a bill once for reconsideration (Article 111). If Parliament repasses it, the President MUST give assent — she cannot withhold it indefinitely. Only the President of India has this limited conditional veto, unlike the US President who has a more powerful veto.
  3. Article 108 Joint Sitting: Only for ordinary bills where RS has delayed beyond 6 months. Not applicable to Money Bills (which RS cannot delay) or Constitutional Amendment Bills (which require different majorities).
  4. Delimitation freeze: The 84th Amendment (2001) froze delimitation until 2026 — this means states with high population growth (e.g., BIMARVU states) are underrepresented relative to their population, while low-growth states (e.g., South Indian states) are overrepresented. This is a politically sensitive issue.
  5. Speaker’s certification of Money Bill: The Speaker’s decision on whether a bill is a Money Bill is final and not subject to judicial review — but the Supreme Court can examine if the Speaker’s decision was mala fide or wholly unreasonable (though no such case has succeeded yet).
  6. Motion of Thanks: After the President’s Address, Lok Sabha typically discusses the address through a Motion of Thanks. This is not a formal vote of confidence but losing it has the political effect of a confidence vote.
  7. Parliamentary Standing Committees: These are 24 Department-related Standing Committees (DRSCs) with members from both Houses, that examine bills after their introduction. They are an important but less-tested element of parliamentary process.
  8. Article 312 Rajya Sabha power for All-India Services: This requires a 2/3 majority of members present and voting in RS. It has been used only twice — for the Indian Administrative Service (1948) and the Indian Police Service (1954). No new service has been created since.