Mughal Empire
🟢 Lite — Quick Review (1h–1d)
Rapid summary for last-minute revision before your exam.
The Mughal Empire (1526–1858) was one of the greatest empires in Indian history — founded by Babur after his victory at Panipat, it reached its zenith under Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. The Mughals left an indelible mark on Indian art, architecture, culture, and administration.
Key Facts for RPSC RAS:
- Babur (r. 1526–1530) founded the empire — defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat (1526).
- Humayun (r. 1530–1540, then 1555–1556) — Babur’s son; exiled to Persia; returned and reclaimed the throne.
- Akbar (r. 1556–1605) — the greatest Mughal; consolidated the empire; Akbarnama; Din-i-Ilahi.
- Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) — lover of art; married Nur Jahan.
- Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) — built the Taj Mahal (for Mumtaz Mahal, 1632–1653); deposed by his son Aurangzeb.
- Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707) — expanded to the Deccan; reimposed jizya; faced rebellions.
- The empire ended after the 1857 rebellion — last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled to Rangoon.
⚡ Exam tip: The causes of the First Battle of Panipat, Akar’s religious policy, the Taj Mahal, and Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaigns are frequently asked.
🟡 Standard — Regular Study (2d–2mo)
Standard content for students with a few days to months.
Foundation — Babur (1526–1530)
The First Battle of Panipat (21 April 1526)
Background:
- Ibrahim Lodi (last Lodi sultan) was unpopular — Afghan nobles were defecting
- Babur (descended from Timur and Chengiz Khan) had established himself in Kabul (1507)
- He crossed the Indus and advanced into the Punjab
Battle:
- Ibrahim Lodi had over 100,000 troops and 1,000 elephants
- Babur had ~12,000 troops — but used artillery (topchi) and tulughma tactics (encircling from flanks)
- Ibrahim Lodi was killed in battle — his army disintegrated
Significance:
- Ended the Delhi Sultanate
- Started the Mughal Empire
- First use of artillery in India in a major battle — a game-changer
Babur’s Reign (1526–1530)
- Established the Mughal Empire in the Delhi-Agra region
- Faced the Battle of Khanwa (1527) against the Rajput confederacy under Rana Sanga — Babur won
- Defeated the Afghan nobles at the Battle of Ghagra (1529)
- Died in 1530 — left a powerful empire to his son Humayun
Babur’s Memoirs: Baburnama — written in Chagatai Turkic — provides vivid details of his life
Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556)
Early Reign Challenges
- Humayun inherited the empire but struggled with:
- Afghan nobles rebelling
- Bahadur Shah (Gujarat) attacking
- His own brothers (Kamran, Askari, Hindal) fighting for territory
Sher Shah Suri
Sher Shah Sur (r. 1540–1545):
- Formerly Farid Khan — renamed Sher Shah by Humayun
- Became the governor of Bihar — then revolted
- Defeated Humayun at the Battle of Kanauj (1540) — Humayun fled to Persia
Sher Shah’s Achievements:
- Founded the Sur dynasty
- Great administrator — introduced reforms that lasted centuries
- Grand Trunk Road — built the GT Road from Bengal to Kabul (still used today)
- Currency reform — introduced the silver Rupee (derived from Sanskrit “rupiya”)
- Postal system (Dak) — efficient intelligence and communication network
Humayun’s Return (1555)
- After years in Persia, Humayun returned with Persian help
- Defeated the Sur forces at the Battle of Sirhind (1555)
- Died in 1556 (accidentally fell from his terrace while reading)
Akbar — The Great (1556–1605)
Consolidation
Early Years:
- Akbar was only 13 when Humayun died
- His regent was Bairam Khan — who stabilised the empire
- Battle of Panipat II (1556): Akbar’s forces under Bairam Khan defeated Hem Chandra (Hemu) — the Hindu Afghan who had seized Delhi
Military Conquests
Akbar’s empire expanded dramatically:
| Region | Method | Notable Events |
|---|---|---|
| Rajputana | Marriage alliance + conquest | Married Jodha Bai (princess of Amer); Rajputs became loyal allies |
| Gujarat | Military conquest | 1572–73 — rich and commercially important |
| Bengal | Military conquest | 1574–76 — defeated Daud Khan Karrani |
| Kashmir | Conquest (no battle) | annexed peacefully |
| Deccan | Diplomacy + limited war | annexed Ahmadnagar, Berar, Khandesh |
Religious Policy — Din-i-Ilahi
Akbar was famous for his liberal religious policy:
- Married Hindu, Parsi, and Rajput wives — promoted communal harmony
- Abolished jizya (tax on non-Muslims) — a revolutionary step
- Akbarnama — written by Abul Fazl; official biography
- Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith): Akbar’s own religious idea — synthesised elements of Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Jainism, Zoroastrianism
- Did not become popular — only ~20 followers
- Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) — where scholars of all faiths debated
Administration
Mansabdari System:
- The Mansabdari system was Akbar’s administrative innovation
- Every noble was assigned a mansab (rank) from Zat (personal salary) and Sawar (cavalry allowance)
- Mansabdars ranged from Mansab 10 to Mansab 5,000
- Basis of military and administrative organisation
- Combined civil, military, and land revenue functions
Revenue System — Todar Mal:
- Ain-i-Dharmani (established by Akbar’s finance minister Raja Todar Mal)
- Standardised land revenue system:
- Zabt system: Land revenue based on measurement (measured in bighas)
- Rates fixed per quality of land
- Cash payment in most areas
- Highly efficient — increased revenue significantly
Jahangir (1605–1627)
Personality: Jahangir was an art lover and wine enthusiast:
Key Features:
- Married Nur Jahan (original name Mehr-un-Nissa) — the most powerful Mughal empress
- Nur Jahan wielded significant political influence — managed the empire during Jahangir’s illness
- Built the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah — the “Baby Taj” — first Mughal structure in white marble
- Art patronage: The Mughal painting reached new heights under Jahangir — naturalistic portraits, miniatures
Jahangir’s Memoir: Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri — provides detailed accounts of his reign
Shah Jahan (1628–1658)
The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture
Shah Jahan is remembered as the greatest patron of Mughal architecture:
Major Buildings:
| Building | Location | Built For | Year |
|---|---|---|---|
| Taj Mahal | Agra | Mumtaz Mahal | 1632–1653 |
| Red Fort | Delhi | Imperial residence | 1638–1648 |
| Jama Masjid | Delhi | Grand mosque | 1650–1656 |
| Peacock Throne | Delhi | Royal throne | 1650s |
| Moti Masjid | Agra | Private mosque | 1660s |
The Taj Mahal:
- Built by 20,000 workers over 22 years
- White Makrana marble
- Houses Mumtaz Mahal’s tomb (Shah Jahan’s wife); Shah Jahan’s own tomb was never completed
- UNESCO World Heritage Site (1983)
Later Years
- Shah Jahan’s sons fought for succession — War of Succession (1657–58)
- Aurangzeb defeated his brothers and imprisoned Shah Jahan
- Shah Jahan spent his last years in Agra Fort — gazing at the Taj Mahal
Aurangzeb (1658–1707)
Rise to Power
Aurangzeb’s war of succession was brutal:
- Dara Shikoh (eldest, favourite) — defeated at Samugarh (1658)
- Shah Shuja (second) — fled to Burma (lost his way)
- Murad Baksh (fourth) — executed by Aurangzeb
- Aurangzeb became emperor
Reign of Aurangzeb
Religious Policy — The Controversy:
- Reimposed jizya (1680) — on Hindus
- Destroyed Hindu temples — Varanasi, Kashi Vishwanath, etc.
- This alienated the Rajputs and other Hindu groups
- Note: Earlier Mughal emperors had protected temples; Aurangzeb reversed this
Deccan Campaigns:
- Aurangzeb spent the last 25 years of his life in the Deccan
- Fought the Marathas under Shivaji
- Shivaji’s son Sambhaji was executed by Aurangzeb (1689)
- Yet the Maratha guerrilla warfare continued
The Deccan Campaigns were disastrous:
- Exhausted the Mughal treasury
- Aurangzeb died in Ahmednagar (1707) — exhausted, the empire was in decline
Causes of Mughal Decline
- Religious policies — alienated non-Muslims
- War of succession — weakened the imperial institution
- Deccan overreach — drained resources
- Maratha insurgency — continuous rebellion
- Nobles’ power — mansabdars became powerful and independent
- Economic decline — revenue system stagnated
The Later Mughals and the End
Bahadur Shah I (Shah Alam) (1707–1712):
- Son of Aurangzeb — attempted reforms
- First to use “Shah Alam” (Emperor of the World)
- Made peace with the Rajputs and Marathas
Muhammad Shah (1719–1748):
- Invasion of Nader Shah (1739) — Persian invasion; sacked Delhi; took the Koh-i-Noor and Peacock Throne
- Battle of Karnal (1739): Nader Shah defeated the Mughal army
The 1857 Rebellion:
- Last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was deposed and exiled to Rangoon (Yangon) in 1858
- The Mughal Empire officially ended
Practice Questions for RPSC RAS
- What were the causes of the First Battle of Panipat? Why did Babur win?
- What was the Mansabdari system? How did it function?
- What was Akbar’s religious policy? How did he promote communal harmony?
- Describe the Taj Mahal — its construction, design, and significance.
- What caused the decline of the Mughal Empire?
Common Mistakes to Avoid
- Confusing the First Battle of Panipat (1526) with the Second (1556) — different battles, different combatants.
- Thinking Akkar abolished jizya permanently — it was reimposed by Aurangzeb.
- Confusing Sher Shah’s reforms with Mughal reforms — Sher Shah preceded Akbar.
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