Medieval India — Delhi Sultanate

🟢 Lite — Quick Review (1h–1d)

Rapid summary for last-minute revision before your exam.

The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE) was a Muslim kingdom that ruled much of the Indian subcontinent from Delhi. It was founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak after the Ghurid conquest and saw five dynasties: Mamluk (Slave), Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi.

Key Facts for RPSC RAS:

• Qutb-ud-din Aibak (r. 1206–1210) — former slave of Muhammad Ghori; founded the Mamluk (Slave) dynasty.
• Iltutmish (r. 1211–1236) — stabilised the administration; introduced the “Silver Tanka” — standardised coinage.
• Razia Sultana (r. 1236–1240) — India’s first and only female ruler of a major kingdom; overthrown by nobles.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq (r. 1325–1351) — eccentric but capable; introduced token currency (paper notes); moved capital to Daulatabad.
• The Sultanate ended when Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat (1526).

⚡ Exam tip: Razia Sultana, Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reforms, the Khalji reforms, and the causes of Sultanate decline are frequently asked.

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🟡 Standard — Regular Study (2d–2mo)

Standard content for students with a few days to months.

Foundation — The Ghurid Conquest

Background

Muhammad Ghori (Muhammad bin Sam):

• Ghurid ruler of Afghanistan — conquered Ghazni from his brother
• Launched expeditions into northern India:
  • First Battle of Tarain (1191): Defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan III
  • Second Battle of Tarain (1192): Defeated Prithviraj Chauhan III — marked the end of Rajput dominance in North India
  • Capture of Delhi: ~1197
  • Capture of Ajmer: ~1199

Why the Rajputs lost:

• Divided into multiple kingdoms — no unified front
• Reliance on cavalry — lacked infantry and strategic depth
• Prithviraj’s betrayal by his own nobles (Jayachandra) — disputed by historians

Qutb-ud-din Aibak (r. 1206–1210)

• Former slave (Mamluk) of Muhammad Ghori — rose to become governor
• After Ghori’s death (1206), declared independence
• Founded the Mamluk (Slave) dynasty — first Muslim dynasty to rule Delhi
• Sultan at Delhi — took the title Sultan
• Capital: Delhi

Major works:

• Began construction of the Qutub Minar (in memory of a Sufi saint, Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki)
• Started building the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (first mosque in Delhi) — built from materials of demolished Hindu temples

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Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty

Iltutmish (r. 1211–1236)

Iltutmish was the most capable early Sultan — stabilised and expanded the empire:

Achievements:

• Added Bengal to the Sultanate (after defeating the local ruler)
• Introduced the Silver Tanka (coin) — standardised currency that became widely accepted
• Organised the Iqta system — land grants to military commanders (iqtadars) in exchange for military service
• Established a succession system — nominated his daughter Razia Sultana as his successor (over his sons)

Administration:

• Divided empire into Iqtas — military governorship units
• Each iqta holder (iqtadar/muqaddam) received revenue grants
• Central treasury at Delhi

Court:

• Iltutmish’s court was known for learned men
• Minhaj-i-Siraj wrote the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri — important historical record

Razia Sultana (r. 1236–1240)

India’s only female ruler of a major kingdom:

Background:

• Daughter of Iltutmish — nominated by her father as successor
• Took the title “Sultana” — refused to use “Malika” (queen)

Reign:

• Appointed Altutmish (a Turkic slave) as her naib (deputy) — against the advice of nobles
• Wore male dress — rode into battle, administered justice personally
• Built caravanserais, wells, and roads

Downfall:

• Opposed by Turkic nobles who resented her elevation of non-Turkic favourites
• Rebellion in Bengal — suppressed but weakened her position
• Marrying an Afghan noble (Ikhtiyar-ud-din at the suggestion of her court) alienated Turkic nobles
• Overthrown by nobles in 1240 — the first Sultan to be deposed by his own nobles

Legacy: Symbol of women’s leadership in medieval India — her story remains significant

Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (r. 1246–1266)

• Son of Iltutmish — ruled weakly
• The real power was his naib (deputy) — Nasir-ud-din Mahmud’s deputy was Balban
• The period saw the rise of Balban

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The Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320)

Jalal-ud-din Khalji (r. 1290–1296)

• Founded the Khalji dynasty by overthrowing the Mamluk dynasty
• Killed the last Mamluk ruler (Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad’s son) — first palace coup in Indian Sultanate
• Assassinated by his nephew Alaud-din Khalji — the latter took the throne

Alaud-din Khalji (r. 1296–1316)

The greatest Khalji Sultan:

Conquests:

• Defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Kili (1305) — first major Indian victory against the Mongols
• Annexed Gujarat — rich trading region
• Conquered the Rajput kingdoms: Ranthambore, Chittorgarh, etc.
• Deccan conquests: Through his general Malik Kafur — invaded the Hoysala, Kakatiya, and Pandya kingdoms
  • Captured Warangal (Kakatiya capital) — massive loot
  • Seized the famed Koh-i-Noor diamond (or the Idol of Hampi — struck out the eyes)
  • Invaded Pandya kingdom — captured the Madhurai throne

Reforms:

1. Market reforms — fixed prices for goods (first time in Indian history)
   • Diwan-i-Riyasat — Market Controller
   • Grain, cloth, horses, cattle — all at regulated prices
   • Heavy punishments for cheating — death penalty for price manipulation
2. Military reforms — paid soldiers in cash (not iqta)
3. Intelligence network — spies throughout the empire
4. Prostitution of women — regulated (historically noted but shameful)

Death: Died of illness (1306 or 1316) — Malik Kafur then tried to take power

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (r. 1325–1351)

The eccentric and capable ruler:

Conquests:

• Extended Sultanate to its greatest extent — including entire Deccan (via the Madrasa)
• Annexed Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Bengal

Reforms — Most Discussed:

1. Token Currency (1326):

   • Introduced bronze and copper coins (called Fals)
   • Were to be exchanged for silver tankas at par
   • People refused — hoarded silver, refused bronze
   • Forged extensively — counterfeiting was rampant
   • Eventually withdrawn —ultan lost heavily

2. Capital Transfer to Daulatabad (1327):

   • Moved the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (in Maharashtra)
   • Ordered the entire population of Delhi to move
   • Reasoning: Strategic position, central location
   • Reversed after 2 years — the move was disastrous

3. Disasters:

   • Great Famine of 1344-45 — Deccan experienced severe drought
   • Bengal rebellion — provinces lost
   • Iqta system deteriorated — iqtadars became independent

Muhammad bin Tughlaq was:

• Scholar, poet, calligrapher
• Well-versed in theology and philosophy
• Cruel and suspicious — had people killed on suspicion
• Yet genuinely interested in welfare — his reforms were visionary but poorly executed

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Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi Dynasties

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414)

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (r. 1320–1325):

• Founded the Tughlaq dynasty
• Built the Tughlaqabad Fort — still visible in Delhi

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (r. 1325–1351) — as above

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (r. 1351–1388):

• Weak ruler — inherited a declining empire
• Built Firoz Shah Kotla (Delhi)
• Many provinces broke away — Bahmani Kingdom established in the Deccan (1347)
• Kashmir: Zain-ul-Abidin (good governance era) — much of North India was fracturing

Decline and Disintegration

By 1351:

• The Sultanate had fragmented into:
  • Bengal (independent)
  • Bahmani Sultanate (Deccan)
  • Vijayanagara (South)
  • Mewar, Marwar, and other Rajput kingdoms (reasserted independence)

Sultanate lingered until 1526 but was never again as powerful

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🔴 Extended — Deep Study (3mo+)

Comprehensive coverage for students on a longer study timeline.

Society, Culture, and Architecture

The Iqta System

The Iqta system was the dominant form of land control and military payment:

How it worked:

1. Sultan granted iqta (land revenue assignment) to military commanders
2. In exchange, the iqtadar provided military service (horses, soldiers)
3. The iqtadar collected revenue from his assigned area
4. Not ownership — the iqtadar could not sell the land
5. The Crown could revoke the grant at will

Evolution:

• Under the Khaljis and early Tughlaqs: More controlled — iqtadars rotated
• Under Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Attempted reforms failed
• Under later Tughlaqs and Sayyids: iqtadars became hereditary — effectively feudal lords

Architecture of the Sultanate

Indo-Islamic Architecture — synthesis of Indian and Islamic styles:

Key features:

• Pointed arches — introduced for the first time (Persian influence)
• Domes — turrets and domes became characteristic
• Minarets — towers (e.g., Qutub Minar)
• Carved medallions — Quranic verses in decorative calligraphy
• Geometric patterns — new designs

Major Structures:

Structure	Built By	Location	Significance
Qutub Minar	Iltutmish	Delhi	World’s tallest brick minaret (73m)
Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque	Iltutmish	Delhi	First mosque in Delhi
Alai Darwaza	Alaud-din Khalji	Delhi	Indo-Islamic architecture
Tughlaqabad Fort	Ghiyas-ud-din	Delhi	Massive fortress
Firoz Shah Kotla	Firoz Shah	Delhi	Cricket ground now; ruins
Gateway of India (later)	—	—	Not Sultanate

The Qutub Minar:

• 73 metres tall — world’s tallest minaret
• Built to commemorate Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki (Sufi saint)
• Damaged by lightning multiple times — rebuilt in Mughal era
• 5 storeys — each with a balcony

Society Under the Sultanate

Position of Hindus:

• Jizya tax — levied on non-Muslims; could be exempted by paying
• Temple destruction — some temples destroyed (Somnath, Varanasi)
• Some Hindu kingdoms survived — Rajputs, Deccan kingdoms
• Cooperation with Hindu nobles — necessary for administration
• Hindus in administration — some served as administrators and generals

Position of Women:

• Purdah (veil) — became more widespread among elite Muslim women
• Sati — reported in some cases but not mandated by the Sultanate
• Female rulers — Razia Sultana was exceptional

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Practice Questions for RPSC RAS

1. Who was Razia Sultana? Why is she historically significant?
2. What were Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s major reforms? Why did they fail?
3. What was the Iqta system? How did it function?
4. Describe the major architectural achievements of the Delhi Sultanate.
5. What led to the decline of the Delhi Sultanate?

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Thinking Muhammad bin Tughlaq was only eccentric — he was also genuinely capable and innovative; his reforms failed due to execution problems, not bad ideas.
• Confusing the Khalji dynasty with the Tughlaq dynasty — they are separate; Khalji came first.
• Forgetting that the Sultanate continued after Muhammad bin Tughlaq — it declined but persisted until 1526.

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