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Topic 1

Part of the KPK PMS study roadmap. General Studies topic pakist-001 of General Studies.

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Pakistan Affairs: Historical Foundations and the Creation of Pakistan

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Topic 1 — Key Facts for KPK PMS Core concept: Pakistan was created as a homeland for South Asia’s Muslims on August 14, 1947 through the partition of British India; the Pakistan Movement was led by the All India Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah; the creation resulted in the largest and most violent demographic transfer in modern history with over 10 million people displaced and 200,000–2,000,000 killed High-yield point: The 1940 Lahore Resolution (also called the Pakistan Resolution) is considered the founding document of Pakistan; it was moved by A.K. Fazlul Huq and supported by Jinnah; the resolution stated that “geographically contiguous units are demarcated into regions which may be constituted with a homogeneous group of Muslims” — this was interpreted as a demand for a separate Muslim state ⚡ Exam tip: The Two-Nation Theory (that Muslims and Hindus are separate nations, not one nation with religious differences) is the ideological foundation of Pakistan — it is frequently tested in Pakistani competitive examinations; also know Jinnah’s August 11, 1947 address to the Constituent Assembly which called for religious freedom for all Pakistanis

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The Historical Background

British India and the Muslim Experience

The Muslim Revival of the 19th Century: The perceived political and economic marginalisation of Muslims under British rule led to the emergence of reform movements:

  • Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (1703–1762): Urged Muslims to return to authentic Islamic practice and sought conciliation among Muslims
  • Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817–1898): Founded the Aligarh Movement; promoted modern education for Muslims; established the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (which became Aligarh Muslim University); believed Muslims needed Western education to progress
  • Allama Iqbal (1877–1938): Poet-philosopher who developed the concept of Khudi (ego/self) and called for Islamic reform and a Muslim homeland

The 1857 Revolt: The failed Indian Rebellion of 1857 against British rule was a significant event:

  • Muslims were disproportionately targeted in British reprisals (perceived as having led the revolt)
  • This created lasting mistrust between Muslims and the British
  • Sir Syed’s policy of loyalty to the British became the dominant Muslim political stance

The Demand for Pakistan

The All India Muslim League (1906):

  • Founded in Dhaka (1906) by A.K. Fazlul Huq and other Muslim leaders
  • Initially advocated separate electorates for Muslims within British India
  • Muhammad Ali Jinnah joined in 1913 and gradually became its leader

The Lucknow Pact (1916):

  • The Congress and the League reached an agreement on representative governance
  • Muslims agreed to support the Congress in demanding greater self-governance
  • This was the first major political cooperation between the two communities

The Fourteen Points of Jinnah (1929): Jinnah presented a set of demands that would become the basis for the Pakistan demand:

  • Federal system with residuary powers to provinces
  • Separate electorates
  • Full civil and political rights for minorities
  • One-third representation for Muslims in the central legislature

The Qayamat report: Jinnah’s frustration with Congress’s refusal to protect Muslim rights led him to declare that Muslims would not accept a “third-rate” position in a united India.

The Lahore Resolution (1940)

The Resolution: The Muslim League’s annual session in Lahore (March 23, 1940) passed the resolution moved by A.K. Fazlul Huq:

“地理配置的相邻单位应被划分成一些地区，这些地区应由同质穆斯林群体组成”

(The regions in which Muslims are numerically in a majority, like the Punjab, NWFP, Sindh and Baluchistan, should be grouped to constitute ‘Independent States’…”

The Significance:

  • This was the first official demand for separate Muslim states
  • Jinnah interpreted it as a demand for Pakistan
  • The resolution transformed the Muslim League from an elite political party into a mass movement

The Crisis of 1946:

  • The British Cabinet Mission’s plan for a united India was rejected by the Congress
  • Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946) led to the Great Calcutta Killings
  • The 1946 elections gave the Muslim League an overwhelming mandate in Muslim constituencies
  • The British announced the transfer of power to a date certain

Partition and Independence (1947)

The Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): Lord Mountbatten announced the partition of British India into two dominions:

  • India: Areas where Hindus were in majority
  • Pakistan: Areas where Muslims were in majority (including Bengal and Punjab divided)

The Radcliffe Award: Sir Cyril Radcliffe’s boundary commission drew the borders of Pakistan and India:

  • The Punjab was divided between India and Pakistan
  • Bengal was divided between India and Pakistan (with East Bengal becoming East Pakistan)
  • The commission had just five weeks to complete its work
  • The borders caused massive displacement

The Massacres and Migration:

  • Communal riots accompanied partition
  • Over 10 million refugees
  • Estimates of death toll: 200,000 to 2,000,000 (most reliable estimates suggest 200,000–500,000)
  • The worst affected areas: Punjab, West Bengal, Bihar

⚡ Exam Tip: The Radcliffe Award is famous for being drawn in just five weeks by a British judge who had no prior knowledge of India and never visited the region. The arbitrary nature of the border created lasting disputes (e.g., the Gurdaspur district issue that gave India access to Kashmir).

August 14, 1947:

  • Pakistan became an independent dominion
  • Muhammad Ali Jinnah was appointed Governor-General
  • Liaquat Ali Khan became the first Prime Minister

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The Founders of Pakistan

Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948)

Profile:

  • Born in Karachi to a merchant family
  • Trained as a lawyer in London; called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn
  • Initially joined the Congress; shifted to the Muslim League in 1913
  • Master negotiator and constitutionalist

Jinnah’s August 11, 1947 Address: On the first day the Constituent Assembly met, Jinnah delivered his defining address. He said:

  • “You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques…”
  • “We are all citizens and equal citizens of one state”
  • “In course of time, Hindustan [India] is bound to glean world comprehension”

Significance of the Speech: This speech is cited by secularists as evidence of Jinnah’s vision of a secular Pakistan. However, his subsequent positions on Islamic law and the Objectives Resolution (1949) suggest a more complex vision.

Jinnah’s Death: Jinnah died of tuberculosis and lung cancer on September 11, 1948, in Karachi. He was buried in Karachi. His mausoleum (Mazar-e-Quaid) is one of Karachi’s most iconic landmarks.

Liaquat Ali Khan (1895–1951)

Profile:

  • First Prime Minister of Pakistan
  • Negotiated the transfer of power
  • Assassinated in Rawalpindi on October 16, 1951

Key Achievements:

  • The Objectives Resolution (1949)
  • The 1951 Representative Government Act (established the basis for democracy)
  • The assassination remains unsolved — many theories suggest involvement of religious parties opposed to his secular policies

Lady Fatimah Jinnah (1893–1968)

Profile:

  • Sister of Muhammad Ali Jinnah
  • Known as the “Mother of the Nation” (though this title is contested)
  • Ran against Ayub Khan in the 1965 presidential elections as the Combined Opposition Party candidate
  • Died in Karachi in 1968

Khawajaaja Nazimuddin (1894–1971)

Profile:

  • Second Governor-General of Pakistan (1951–1953)
  • A proponent of parliamentary democracy
  • Removed from power by Ayub Khan’s coup

The Early Crises of Pakistan

The Language Crisis (1948–1952)

The Bengali Language Movement:

  • Urdu was declared the official language of Pakistan
  • Bengali-speaking East Pakistanis (63% of the population) opposed this
  • The movement culminated in the Language Movement of 1952
  • February 21, 1952: Police opened fire on student protesters at Dhaka University, killing several students
  • This day is now observed as “Ekushey” (21) in Bangladesh

The Result:

  • Bengali was recognised as an official language in 1956
  • Bangladesh’s independence movement has its roots in the Bengali language and cultural distinctiveness

⚡ Exam Tip: The Language Movement is seen as the precursor to Bangladesh’s independence struggle. East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and West Pakistan had significant cultural, linguistic, and economic disparities that contributed to the 1971 crisis.

The Accession of Kashmir

The Kashmir Dispute: Pakistan and India both claim the entire region of Jammu and Kashmir:

  • India administers Jammu & Kashmir (downgraded to a union territory in 2019)
  • Pakistan administers Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan
  • China administers the Aksai Chin region

The Accession: The Maharaja of Kashmir (Hari Singh) initially delayed accession to either India or Pakistan. When raiders from Pakistan entered Kashmir in October 1947, Hari Singh acceded to India (October 26, 1947). India then deployed troops.

The Ceasefire (1949): A UN-mediated ceasefire established the Line of Control, which remains in place today. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 (1948) calling for a plebiscite, but this has never been held.

The 1958 Coup and the End of the First Republic

Ayub Khan’s Coup: On October 7, 1958, General Ayub Khan overthrew the government of Iskander Mirza (who had become President after the 1956 Constitution). Ayub Khan imposed martial law and abolished the constitution.

The End of Democracy: Pakistan’s first experience with parliamentary democracy had lasted just 11 years (1947–1958) and had been marked by political instability, the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, and the language crisis. This set a pattern that would repeat throughout Pakistani history.

Ayub Khan’s Rule: Ayub Khan’s decade in power (1958–1969) saw:

  • Basic Democracies System (1958)
  • The 1962 Constitution (presidential system)
  • Economic growth but political repression
  • The 1965 war with India
  • Mass protests leading to his resignation

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