Medieval India
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Medieval India — Key Facts for TNPSC Group 1 Core concept: Medieval India (c. 600–1526 CE) witnessed the establishment and flourishing of major regional kingdoms — the Chola Empire in the south, the Rajput confederacies and Delhi Sultanate in the north — along with significant developments in art, architecture, and religious traditions High-yield point: The Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola I established Tamil naval dominance across Southeast Asia; the Delhi Sultanate under Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced administrative innovations like the daog tax (dāng) ⚡ Exam tip: TNPSC frequently tests Vijayanagara and Bahmani Kingdom contributions — Hampi ruins, Gol Gumbaz, and the Sufi-Bhakti synthesis
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Medieval India — TNPSC Group 1 Study Guide
Overview
Medieval India (c. 600–1526 CE) is a period of extraordinary regional diversity, cultural synthesis, and political experimentation. Following the fragmentation of the Gupta Empire, India saw the rise and fall of numerous dynasties — the Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas in the north; the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras in the south; followed by the Delhi Sultanate and the Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms. This period saw the synthesis of Hindu and Islamic cultures, the flourishing of temple architecture, the development of regional literatures, and significant advances in trade and administration.
Regional Kingdoms of North India (8th–12th centuries)
The Three Crowns of North India
By the 8th century, three major powers competed for supremacy in the Gangetic plain:
| Dynasty | Region | Capital | Peak Period |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pratihara | Gujarat, Rajasthan, Malwa | Kannauj | 8th–9th centuries |
| Pala | Bengal, Bihar | Pataliputra (Gaur) | 8th–12th centuries |
| Rashtrakuta | Deccan, Maharashtra | Manyakheta (Malkhed) | 8th–10th centuries |
Pratihara Dynasty (c. 730–1036 CE)
- Founder: Nana (or Guha); rose to prominence under Mihira Bhoja I (c. 836–886 CE)
- Bhoja I: Greatest Pratihara ruler — extended empire to include Gujarat, Marwar, and central India; patronized literature and arts; built the city of Bhopal
- Administration: Decentralized — relying on Samantas (feudal lords)
- Decline: Overextended empire led to fragmentation; final ruler: Masala
Pala Dynasty (c. 750–1162 CE)
- Founder: Gopala (c. 750–770 CE) — elected king by the people of Bengal
- Dharmapala (c. 770–810 CE): Extended Pala dominion over Bihar and Uttar Pradesh; contested Kannauj with Pratiharas
- Devapala (c. 810–850 CE): Most powerful Pala ruler — patronized Nalanda and Vikramashila universities
- Nalanda and Vikramashila: The Palas were great patrons of Buddhism — Vikramashila University (Bihar) was founded by Dharmapala
- Buddhist art: Pala period saw the development of the exquisite Bihar and Bengal school of Buddhist art — bronze images of Tara, Prajnaparamita
- Decline: Overrun by the Seljuk Turks and later the Sena dynasty
Rashtrakuta Dynasty (c. 753–982 CE)
- Founder: Dantidurga (c. 753–773 CE)
- Krishna I (c. 756–775 CE): Constructed the Kailasa temple at Ellora (Cave 16) — the world’s largest monolithic temple, carved from a single basalt cliff
- Amoghavarsha I (c. 814–878 CE): Most famous Rashtrakuta — patron of the Jain scholar Jinasena; long reign of 66 years; issued earliest copper plate inscriptions in Kannada
- Literature: Kannada language flourished — first inscription in Kannada (975 CE, Doddahunda)
- Kailasa Temple, Ellora: Dedicating to Shiva — carved 583–757 CE; requires understanding of engineering precision
The Chola Empire (c. 850–1279 CE)
Overview
The Chola Empire is the most celebrated dynasty of South India — known for its naval power, temple architecture, administrative innovations, and cultural contributions that influenced all of Southeast Asia.
Early Chola Rulers
| King | Period | Notable Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Vijayalaya Chola | c. 850–880 CE | Revived Chola power; captured Thanjavur from the Pandyas |
| Aditya I | c. 870–907 CE | Extended Chola power; defeated Pandya and Chera kings |
| Parantaka I | c. 907–950 CE | Conquered Sri Lanka (Ruhuna); first major territorial expansion |
| Gandaraditya | c. 950–957 CE | |
| Arinjaya | c. 957–960 CE | |
| Sundara Chola (Parantaka II) | c. 957–973 CE | Restored Chola fortunes |
| Uttama Chola | c. 973–985 CE | Consolidated power; built temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram |
Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) — The Great
Rajaraja I, also called “Rajaraja the Great,” transformed the Chola Empire into a Pan-Indian power:
- Conquest of Sri Lanka: 993 CE — annexed the entire island
- Conquest of Maldives: Established Chola naval dominance in the Indian Ocean
- Western campaigns: Defeated the Western Chalukyas and captured territories in Karnataka and Andhra
- Kandian (Sri Lanka) conquest: Captured the Pandyas and occupied the northern Sri Lanka
- Administration: Organized the empire into valanadus (districts) — centralizing revenue and administration
- Brihadeeswarar Temple: Built at Thanjavur (985–1012 CE) — a masterpiece of Dravidian architecture; the vimana (tower) is 216 feet high and is said to cast no shadow at noon
Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 CE) — The Challenger
Rajendra Chola I, son of Rajaraja I, was an even greater conqueror:
- Gangaikonda Cholapuram: Built a new capital — “City of the Chola at the source of the Ganges” — to commemorate his northern campaigns
- Vijayalaicher: Defeated the Chalukyas and captured the Western Chalukya capital Manyakheta
- Conquest of Sri Lanka: Completed his father’s annexation
- Naval campaigns: Sent naval expeditions to Southeast Asia — the Chola fleet reached Srivijaya (Sumatra, Indonesia)
- Trade: Controlled maritime trade routes from the Bay of Bengal to the South China Sea
Kulottunga I (1070–1122 CE)
The most successful later Chola ruler — expanded the empire through diplomacy and military campaigns:
- Peaceful reign: Less military but more trade and cultural development
- Relations with the East: Sent missions to the Chinese court
- Temple building: Continued the grand tradition of Dravidian architecture
Chola Administration
- King (Raja): Absolute monarch; considered divine (dharma-vijaya)
- Central government: Ministers (mantri), council (niravu), and officials
- Village assemblies (ur): Remarkably democratic local governance — the village assembly managed its own affairs, collected taxes, maintained records
- Land revenue: One-sixth of produce; land survey and classification were sophisticated
- Military: Brahmin military commanders (dandanyaya); elephant corps and cavalry
- Navy: Chola navy was the strongest in medieval India — enabled overseas trade and conquests
Temple Administration
- Devastanam: Temple was a major landholder; received donations (brahmadeya, devadana) from kings and nobles
- Temple economy: Employed accountants, priests, artists, dancers (devadasis)
- Bronze sculpture: Chola bronzes are among the finest in the world — the Nataraja (Shiva as Cosmic Dancer), icons of Vishnu, Lakshmi
Cultural Contributions
- Temple architecture: Dravidian style reached its peak — vimana (tower), gopuram (gateway), mandapa (hall); Brihadeeswarar (Thanjavur), Airavateshwara (Darasuram), Kampaheswarar (Tiruvaiyaru)
- Bronze sculpture: The famous Nataraja bronze — Shiva dancing the cosmic dance — is the supreme achievement of Chola art
- Literature: Tamil literature flourished — Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam (hagiography of the 63 Nayanar saints); traditions of the Saiva Siddhanta school
- UNESCO sites: Airavateshwara Temple at Darasuram; Brihadeeswarar at Thanjavur; Kampaheswarar at Tiruvaiyaru (all UNESCO World Heritage Sites)
The Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646 CE)
Foundation
Founded in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I — brothers who served under the Kakatiya kingdom and were later appointed as governors by the Delhi Sultanate before rebelling:
- Location: On the Tungabhadra River in Karnataka — built on the site of Hampi
- Capital: Hampi (Vidyanagara) — one of the largest and most prosperous cities of its time
Rulers
| King | Period | Notable Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Harihara I | 1336–1356 CE | Co-founder; shifted capital to Hampi |
| Bukka Raya I | 1356–1377 CE | Co-founder; expanded empire |
| Deva Raya II | 1422–1446 CE | Greatest ruler; military expansion; patronized literature |
| Krishna Deva Raya | 1509–1529 CE | Peak of Vijayanagara; literary golden age |
| Achyuta Deva Raya | 1529–1542 CE | |
| Sadashiva Raya | 1542–1565 CE | Last effective ruler |
Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529 CE) — The Golden Age of Vijayanagara
- Military: Defeated the Deccan Sultanates at the Battle of Raichur (1520 CE); captured the fortress of Vijayagad
- Administration: Excellent bureaucratic system; revenue reforms
- Literature: Patron of Telugu literature — called “Andhra Vibhava” (pride of Andhra)
- Temple building: Completed the Hampi temples; added gopurams to many temples; the Hazara Ramaswamy Temple
- Accounts: European visitors — Domingo Paes (Portuguese) wrote admiringly of the city
Cultural Achievements
- Architecture: The distinctive “Dravidian style” — massive gopurams (gateway towers), courtyards, granaries
- Hampi: Ruins of Hampi include the Virupaksha Temple, Vittala Temple (with the famous stone chariot), Hazara Rama Temple, Queen’s Bath, Lotus Mahal
- Literature: Telugu literature reached its zenith —芭蕉 (Krishnadevaraya composed Amukta Malyada); Kannada literature under Deva Raya II
- Bronze sculpture: Continued the South Indian bronze tradition
Decline and Fall
- Battle of Talikota (1565 CE): The Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar) combined forces and decisively defeated the Vijayanagara army at Talikota — the empire never recovered
- Sacking of Hampi: The victorious sultanates plundered and destroyed Hampi
- Aftermath: The empire survived in diminished form until 1646 CE, but the golden age was over
The Bahmani Kingdom (1347–1526 CE)
Foundation
Founded by Ala-ud-Din Hasan Gangu Bahmani in 1347 CE — a governor of the Delhi Sultanate who rebelled and established an independent kingdom in the Deccan:
- Capital: Gulbarga (initially), later Bidar, then Hyderabad (under the Qutb Shahi successors)
Rulers
| King | Period | Notable Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Ala-ud-Din Hasan | 1347–1358 CE | Founder; proclaimed Bahmani kingdom |
| Muhammad Shah I | 1358–1375 CE | Consolidated kingdom |
| Firoz Shah | 1397–1422 CE | Built the Jamiya Masjid at Gulbarga |
| Ahmad Shah Wali | 1422–1461 CE | Founded Hyderabad; patronized arts |
| Muhammad Shah II | 1461–1482 CE | |
| Mahmud Gawan | 1463–1481 CE | Greatest prime minister; reformer; executed |
Mahmud Gawan’s Reforms
Mahmud Gawan was the most capable administrator of the Bahmani Kingdom:
- Divided the kingdom into 8 provinces (tarafs)
- Appointed governors (tarafdars) with defined powers
- Military reforms — introduced matchlock troops and artillery
- Promoted centralized revenue administration
- Patronized Persian learning
Decline
The Bahmani Kingdom fragmented into five Deccan Sultanates in 1526 CE:
- Bijapur (Adil Shahis)
- Golconda (Qutb Shahis)
- Ahmadnagar (Nizam Shahis)
- Bidar (Imad Shahis)
- Berar (Farah Shahis)
The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE)
Slave Dynasty (1206–1290 CE)
- Qutb-ud-Din Aibak: Founder of Turkish rule in India; a slave of Muhammad Ghori; established the Mamluk (Slave) dynasty at Delhi
- Iltutmish: Greatest Slave dynasty ruler — consolidated Turkic rule; introduced the “Turkan-i-Chahalgani” (the Forty) — a council of forty elite Turkish nobles
- Razia Sultana: The only female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate (1236–1240 CE) — brave and capable but ultimately overthrown
Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320 CE)
- Jalal-ud-Din Khalji: Overthrew the Slave dynasty; patronized conversion of lower castes
- Alaud-Din Khalji: Most powerful Khalji ruler — first Sultan to directly control South India; introduced market reforms (diarchy — controlled prices of goods); built the Alai Darwaza
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414 CE)
- Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq: Founded the Tughlaq dynasty
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 CE): Most controversial Tughlaq ruler — brilliant but eccentric:
- Token coinage: Introduced bronze/copper coins ( Alam) to replace gold/silver — failed due to forgery
- Daog tax: Introduced agricultural tax (dāng) on agricultural produce — caused widespread rebellion
- Capital shift: Moved capital from Delhi to Daulatabad — then moved back
- Postal system (dak): Established an efficient mounted courier system
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq was known for:
Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451 CE)
- Khizr Khan: Founded the Sayyid dynasty after Timur’s invasion of India (1398 CE)
- Weak rulers — gradually lost control
Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526 CE)
- Bahlul Khan Lodi: Founded the Lodi dynasty
- Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517 CE): Great ruler — administrative reforms; patronized arts and architecture; built the city of Agra
- Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526 CE): Last sultan of Delhi — defeated at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 CE by Babur
Bhakti and Sufi Movements
Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti movement — devotional worship of a personal God — swept across India during the medieval period:
North Indian Bhakti Saints:
- Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE): Tamil philosopher — developed Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism); influenced by Alavandar; propagated devotion to Vishnu
- Namdeva (1270–1350 CE): Maharashtra saint — Varkari tradition; devotional songs (abhang)
- Guru Nanak (1469–1539 CE): Founder of Sikhism — belief in one God, equality of all humans; set up sangat (congregations)
- Tulsidas (1532–1623 CE): Composed Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi — retelling of the Ramayana
- Kabir (1440–1518 CE): Mystic poet — influenced both Hindu and Muslim traditions; rejected caste and ritual; believed in one formless God
South Indian Bhakti Saints (Tamil):
- The 63 Nayanmars: Shaiva saints — compiled in the Periyapuranam by Sekkilar
- The 12 Alvars: Vaishnava saints — compiled the Divya Prabandham
Sufi Movement
Sufism (Islamic mysticism) arrived in India with the Turkish conquests:
Major Sufi Orders:
- Chishti Order: Most influential in India — founded by Khwaja Moin-ud-Din Chishti (1142–1236 CE) at Ajmer
- Suhrawardi Order: Established in Bhopal and Delhi
- Naqshbandi Order: Established in Punjab
Famous Sufi Saints:
- Nizam-ud-Din Auliya (1238–1325 CE): Most beloved Sufi saint of Delhi; popularized the Chishti order
- Khwaja Moin-ud-Din Chishti (1142–1236 CE): Founded the Chishti order in India; Ajmer Sharif
- Baba Farid (1173–1266 CE): Punjabi Sufi saint; composed devotional poetry in Punjabi
- Amir Khusro (1253–1325 CE): The “father of Urdu literature” — composed poetry in Persian, Hindi, and Awadhi; invented the sitar
TNPSC-Specific High-Yield Points
- Kailasa Temple at Ellora: Built by Krishna I (Rashtrakuta); world’s largest monolithic temple
- Chola Navy: Rajendra Chola’s maritime power reached Southeast Asia
- Brihadeeswarar Temple: Built by Rajaraja I at Thanjavur; vimana casts no shadow at noon
- Hampi (Vijayanagara): UNESCO World Heritage site; capital of Vijayanagara Empire
- Battle of Talikota (1565): Vijayanagara’s defeat by Deccan Sultanates
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reforms: Token coinage, daog tax, capital shift to Daulatabad
- Krishna Deva Raya: Greatest Vijayanagara ruler; Amukta Malyada
- Bhakti saints: Kabir, Guru Nanak, Namdeva, Tulsidas — key facts
- Sufi saints: Nizam-ud-Din Auliya, Khwaja Moin-ud-Din Chishti, Amir Khusro
- Razia Sultana: Only female ruler of Delhi Sultanate
Practice Questions (Previous Year TNPSC Patterns)
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The Kailasa Temple at Ellora was built by: a) Pallavas b) Rashtrakutas c) Cholas d) Hoysalas
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The famous Hampi (Vijayanagara) is located in present-day: a) Karnataka b) Andhra Pradesh c) Tamil Nadu d) Kerala
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The founder of the Sikh religion was: a) Kabir b) Guru Nanak c) Namdeva d) Ramanuja
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Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced: a) House tax b) Token coinage c) Land revenue d) Trade license
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