Indian History - Medieval India
🟢 Lite — Quick Review (1h–1d)
Rapid summary for last-minute revision before your exam.
Medieval India — MHC-CET (Law) Quick Recall
The medieval period (c. 1206–1757 CE) is dominated by the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, with powerful regional kingdoms filling the spaces.
Key Eras:
- Delhi Sultanate — 1206–1526 CE (Mamluk/Ghilzai/Tughlaq/Sayyid/Lodi dynasties)
- Mughal Empire — 1526–1857 CE (Babur to Bahadur Shah Zafar)
- Regional Kingdoms — Vijayanagara, Bahmani, Rajput, Maratha, Sikh, etc.
Must-Know Sultans: Iltutmish, Balban, Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firuz Tughlaq, Sikandar Lodi.
Must-Know Mughals: Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb.
⚡ Exam Tip: Medieval history questions often test administrative systems (Iqta, Mansabdari, Zabt), religious policies, and cultural achievements. Pay special attention to how Sultanate and Mughal administrations differed.
🟡 Standard — Regular Study (2d–2mo)
Standard content for students with a few days to months.
The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE)
The Foundation — Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210)
- Former slave of Muhammad Ghori; established Mamluk (Slave) dynasty
- First Sultan of Delhi; ruled from Gurgaon (later shifted to Delhi)
- Built Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque and Qutb Minar (started; completed by Iltutmish)
- Died playing chaugan (polo); horse fell on him — called “Si Champagne”
Iltutmish (1211–1236)
- Son-in-law of Aibak; greatest of early Sultanate rulers
- Capital: Delhi; consolidated Turkish rule in North India
- Organised Chalisa (Council of 40 — Turkic nobles); maintained balance between Persian and Turkic nobles
- Added 3 more storeys to Qutb Minar
- First Sultan to mint the silver Tanka (standardised currency)
- Died after a long illness; succession disputes followed
Balban (1266–1287)
- Served as Naib (deputy) under Nasiruddin Mahmud; became Sultan after his death
- Theory of Kingship: Sultan is the representative of God on earth; kingly authority must inspire fear
- Diwan-i-Kul (Chief Justice) and Diwan-i-Arz (Military) separated
- Mongol invasions: Balban defeated them at Laudhoi (1241); built forts at Hansi, Siri
- Razed dependencies; maintained strict justice; death in 1287 left weak successor
Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316)
- Assassinated his uncle, Jalaluddin Khalji (his uncle and predecessor) to seize throne
- Military conquests: Gujarat (defeated Vaghela dynasty), Ranthambore, Chittor (key: captured queen Padmini story — Gora Kumbal legend), Malwa, Deccan
- First Sultan to directly control Bengal and the Punjab
- Administrative Reforms:
- Diwan-i-Ala (Revenue Dept) — separation from military
- Fixed land revenue rates (50% of produce in irrigated, 1/3 in non-irrigated)
- Market reforms (Mandi system) — control of prices; appointed Diwan-i-Mustakhar (Market Controller); grain prices fixed
- Ariana — land measurement; Parma — bigha measurement
- Muqtis (Iqta holders) given land for military service; accounts audited
- Built Alai Darwaza (entrance to Qutb Minar complex)
- Proposed to attack Delhi but died of illness before; Mongol invasions continued
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351)
- Most capable and most controversial Sultan
- Conquests: Qalat, Nagpur, Warangal (Telingana), Maluita
- Administrative Reforms:
- Token Currency: Introduced bronze/copper coins (Tanka) to replace silver — failed due to forgery; withdrawn within 2 years
- Capital shift: Moved capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Maharashtra) — people forced to migrate; later reverted
- Diwan-i-Kohi: Reorganised land revenue department; revived measurement (Ghana-Sat)
- Established Dagh (c Branding of horses)
- Created Dar-ul-Shafa (public hospital) and Dar-ul-Falah (agricultural)
- Taxation in Doab (between Ganga and Yamuna) — heavy taxes
- Rebellions: Gujarat, Kampila, Malabar, Bengal, Deccan — all revolted
- Died near Thatta (Sindh) while pursuing rebel
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388)
- Kind and religious; built Firuz Shah Kotla (Delhi); shifted Ashoka Pillar to Delhi
- Ibadatkhana — house of worship; welcomed Hindus to court
- Built canals (Sawan Nuh and Firoz Shah); revived agriculture
- Marhatta tax (1/5 of produce) instead of Kharaj (land tax); abolished many taxes
- Beggars and artisans supported; constructed hospitals
- Ruled during onset of Timur’s invasion; declined slowly
Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1443)
- Khizr Khan (founder) — Timur’s deputy in India
- Mubarak Shah — extended rule; held at Kabul
- Muhammad Shah — last effective ruler
Bahlul Khan Lodi (1451–1489)
- Founded Lodi Dynasty (Afghan)
- Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517) — great builder; wrote Sankriti (Hindi verses); patronised Brahmin scholars
- Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526) — last Sultan; defeated at First Battle of Panipat (1526) by Babur
Administration of Sultanate
Iqta System:
- Land granted in exchange for military service
- Muqti held land; collected revenue; maintained troops; remitted balance to treasury
- Land revenue: Kharaj (could be 1/3 to 1/2 of produce)
- Administered by Amil (revenue collector)
Central Administration:
- Diwan-i-Wizarat — Finance (Wazir)
- Diwan-i-Ariz — Military (Ariz-i-Mumalik)
- Diwan-i-Rasalat — Religious matters (Sadr-us-Sudur)
- Naib — Deputy Sultan (post Balban)
The Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE)
Babur (1526–1530)
- Founder of Mughal Empire; descendant of Timur (on father’s side) and Chengiz Khan (on mother’s side)
- First Battle of Panipat (1526): Used Ottoman cannons and artillery park; Ibrahim Lodi’s large but disorganised army defeated
- Battle of Khanwa (1527): Defeated Rana Sanga (Rajput confederacy) — Rajput women performed Jauhar
- Battle of Chanderi (1528): Defeated Medini Rai (Raja of Chanderi)
- Died in 1530 at Agra; body taken to Kabul (later to India)
- Memoirs: Baburnama (written in Chagatai Turkish)
Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556)
- Lost empire to Sher Shah Suri (Sur dynasty) at Battle of Kanauj (1540)
- Fled to Persia (Safavid Shah); spent 15 years in exile
- Recovered throne in 1555 with help of Safavid Persia and Uzbek allies
- Died in 1556 after falling from terrace of his library at Purana Quila, Delhi
- Akbar succeeded him
Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545)
- Most able administrator among Sur dynasty
- Established Mughal administration in many respects before Mughals
- Ryotwari system: Revenue at 1/3 of average produce; collected directly by Amil (government officer); no middleman
- Built Grand Trunk Road (ancient name: Uttarapatha) — from Bengal to Kabul; used by Ashoka and later Mughals
- Mughal Gardens: Started at Kabul and India
- Built Rohtas Fort (Pakistan); reformed currency; standardized weights
- Died after a volley during siege of Kalinjar (Rajasthan)
Akbar (1556–1605)
- Greatest Mughal Emperor; ascended at age 13; ruled for 49 years
- Regents: Humayun’s widow Hamida Banu Begum (mother) and ** Bairam Khan** (chief minister, Tehran)
- Battle of Panipat II (1556): Akbar defeated Hemu (Hindu-Sikh confederacy) — Hemu captured and beheaded
- Expansion: Gujarat (1572-73), Bengal (1574), Kashmir (1586), Deccan (1601)
- Rajput Policy: Married Jodh Bai (Mariam-uz-Zamani), daughter of Raja Bharamal of Amer; established friendship with Rajputs; some Rajputs rose to high positions (Man Singh, Bhagwan Das)
- Religious Policy:
- Abolished Jizya (tax on non-Muslims) in 1564
- Ibadatkhana at Fatehpur Sikri — inter-faith discussions
- Recited Gayatri Mantra and Ram Dhun — contested by Ulema
- Din-i-Ilahi (Tauhid-i-Ilahi) — syncretic religion founded by Akbar (did not survive him)
- Revenue Administration:
- Zabt — land revenue administration; Zabti (assessment)
- Ain-i-Akbari — part of AkbarNama by Abul Fazl; details administration, geography, revenues
- Todar Mal — Revenue Minister; refined the Zabt system (land classification: Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, Banjar)
- Court: Navaratna (Nine Gems) — but only Rajarshi; Abul Fazl (Ain-i-Akbari); Faizi
- Akbarnama by Abul Fazl; Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri by Jahangir
- Built Fatehpur Sikri (1571-1585); Red Fort at Agra; Humayun’s Tomb (Delhi)
- Died at Agra; body placed in tomb at Sikandra (Akbar’s own tomb)
Jahangir (1605–1627)
- Son of Akbar; ascended after Akbar’s death
- Married Nur Jahan (originally Mehr-un-Nissa); she became powerful — managed empire’s administration with Jahangir
- Suleiman Chagatai (cousin) suppressed; held court
- Shah Jahan’s illness — Nur Jahan’s influence grew; captured
- Died at Kashmir; tomb at Lahore
- Memoirs: Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri
Shah Jahan (1628–1658)
- Built Taj Mahal (1632–1653) — for wife Mumtaz Mahal; world heritage
- Built Red Fort (Delhi) and Jama Masjid (Delhi); Moti Masjid (Agra)
- War of succession — four sons: Dara Shikoh, Aurangzeb, Shuja, Murad Baksh
- Defeated Dara Shikoh (crowned as Mughal emperor) at Battle of Samugarh (1658)
- Imprisoned at Mughal Gardens (Salim Garh); died there in 1658 (officially 1658 but likely 1666)
- Peacock Throne — made by Shah Jahan; later taken by Nadir Shah
Aurangzeb (1658–1707)
- Last effective Mughal emperor; assumed title Alamgir
- Imprisoned father Shah Jahan
- Deccan Policy: Fought Marathas under Shivaji; captured and executed Sambhaji (Shivaji’s son) in 1689
- Rajput Policy reversal: Dismissed Jaswant Singh from Deccan court; conflict with Rajputs
- Religious Policy:
- Re-imposed Jizya (1658); discontinued only in 1705 under pressure
- Banned music in court; destroyed temples (Kashi Vishwanath, Keshav Rai)
- Fatawa-e-Alamgiri — compilation of Islamic law
- Sikh Policy: Executed Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675) — provocation of Hindu-Sikh unity
- Maratha Rebellions: Chhatrapati Shivaji (ruler of Satara); Treaty of Purandar (1665); Shivaji’s capture of Singhgad (1666)
- Northwest: Fought Pashtun tribes; Jamal Khan issue; no major expansion
- Died at Ahmednagar (1707); Deccan campaigns failed; empire stretched thin
- Post-Aurangzeb: Quick decline — Maratha expansion, Sikh uprisings, Jats, Satnamis, Rajput resentment
🔴 Extended — Deep Study (3mo+)
Comprehensive coverage for students on a longer study timeline.
Regional Kingdoms — Vijayanagara and the Deccan
Vijayanagara Empire (c. 1336–1666 CE)
- Founded by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I (brothers; originally commanders under Kampili kingdom)
- Capital: Hampi (Vidyanagara) on Tungabhadra River — now UNESCO World Heritage Site
- Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) — greatest Vijayanagara ruler; Telugu; patron of literature; court poets: Allasani Peddana (Andhra poet); Ashtadiggajas
- Devaraya II (1425–1446) — strong military; recruited Muslim archers (Ghilzai Afghan)
- Four capitals: Hampi (main), Penukonda (alternative), Chandragiri (later), Vellore (later)
- Administration: Mahapradhana (Prime Minister), Dandanatha (Military), Rayas (feudatories)
- Religion: Shaivism and Vaishnavism both flourished; Maha-mantapa and Hazara Rama temple at Hampi
- Art: Dravidian style architecture — Vittala Temple (musical pillars); Lotus Mahal; Elephant Stables
- Trade: Imports: horses, pearls, spices; Exports: cotton textiles, pepper, diamonds (Kollur mine)
- Downfall: Battle of Talikota (1565) — Combined Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar) defeated Vijayanagara under Rama Raya. Hampi destroyed and plundered.
Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1526)
- Founded by Ala-ud-din Hasan (Gulbarga) after revolting against Delhi Sultanate
- Gulbarga (original capital); shifted to Bidar by Muhammad Shah II
- Five Sultanates emerged after Bahmani split (1518): Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Berar
- Architecture: Gulbarga mosque (copy of Quranic architecture); Bidar fort
- Administration: Persianised bureaucracy; frequent conflict with Vijayanagara for Raichur Doab
Maratha Empire (c. 1630–1818)
Shivaji Maharaj (1630–1680):
- Born at Shivneri Fort (Maharashtra); father: Shahji Bhonsle; mother: Jijabai
- Established Maratha kingdom in Western India (Pune, Maharashtrian highlands)
- Capture of Torna (1646) — first fort captured at age 16
- Capture of Singhgad (1648) — legendary fort; father executed by Mughals
- Treaty of Purandar (1665): Accepted Mughal suzerainty; lost 23 of 35 forts; retained 12
- Plucky at Agra (1666): Shivaji called to meet Aurangzeb; escaped disguised as a Brahmin messenger — called “袋子戏”
- Coronation at Raigad (1674): Declared himself Chhatrapati; issued Administrative Manual (Ashta Pradhan)
- Ashta Pradhan (Council of Eight):
- Peshwa (Prime Minister), Mandalika (War), Senapati (Military), Sumant (Diplomacy)
- Pandit Rao (Religious), Nyayadhish (Justice), Sachiv (Records), Sauuncha (Treasury)
- Religious Policy: Promoted Hindu Dharma; abolished Brahmin privileges; encouraged Maratha identity
- Died at Raigad (1680); son Sambhaji succeeded
Sambhaji (1680–1689):
- Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaign captured him; executed at sangameshwar (1689)
Rajaram I (1689–1707):
- fled to Vijayawada; continued resistance; death at satara (1707)
Shivaji II and Later:
- Shahu (1707–1749) — puppet of Peshwa under Balaji Vishwanath; Balaji Vishwanath helped Shivaji II get release from Mughals
- Peshwa became de facto rulers: Balaji Vishwanath, Baji Rao I, Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb)
Baji Rao I (1720–1740):
- Most famous Peshwa; expanded Maratha empire rapidly
- Battle of Delhi (1737): Maratha forces under Sadashiv Bhau (Peshwa’s nephew) invaded and reached Delhi
- Defeated Mughal governor at Bhopal; Mughal Empire effectively ended in Deccan
Third Battle of Panipat (1761):
- Ahmed Shah Durrani (Afghanistan) defeated Marathas under Vishwas Rao (Peshwa’s son) and Sadashiv Bhau
- Marathas retreated from North India; but recovered within decades
- Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao (1745–1761) — last effective Peshwa
Later Peshwas:
- Nana Saheb (1750–1773) — extended Maratha power; granted territories by Delhi
- Madhav Rao Narayan (1773–1795) — later Peshwa
- Baji Rao II (1795–1818) — last Peshwa; defeated at Battle of Koregaon (1818); ended Maratha power; British suzerainty
Bhakti and Sufi Movements
Bhakti Movement (7th–17th Century):
- Narayana Guru; Kabir (15th century; nirgun bhakti; Kabir’s dohas — Doha Sutra); Guru Nanak (1469–1539; founded Sikhism — Japji Sahib; rejected caste; Guru Granth Sahib compiled at Amritsar under Arjan Dev); Tukaram (Marathi; abhangs); Eknath; Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas; Awadhi)
- Shankara (8th century): Advaita Vedanta — “Brahman is everything”; Jagadguru; Peethas established; Shankara Digvijaya by Madhava Vidyaranya
- Ramanuja (11th century): Vishishtadvaita — qualified monism; Sri Vaishnavism; rejected Mayavada (Advaita); Bhashya on Brahma Sutra
- Madhva (13th century): Dvaita — strict dualism; 8 Vaishnava forms; eternal difference between Brahman and souls
Sufi Movement:
- Nizamuddin Auliya; Amir Khusrau; Chishti order (Ajmer Sharif — Moinuddin Chishti; accepted by Hindus and Muslims); Shattari; Suhrawardi
- Sufi shrines — open to all; Kashmir Sufism — bulbuls and saints
- Syncretic traditions — Baba Bulleh Shah (Punjab); Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (Sindh); Khwaja Bandanwa (Maharashtra)
Important Medieval Administrative Terms
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Iqta | Land grant for military service |
| Muqti | Iqta holder |
| Zabt | Land revenue settlement |
| Zat | Personal salary of Mansabdar |
| Sawar | Horseman |
| Mansab | Official rank in Mughal army |
| Mansabdari | System of ranking officials |
| Jagir | Land granted for service |
| Inam | Land grant without service condition |
| Khalsa | Crown land |
| Pargana | Sub-district |
| Jagirdari | System of revenue assignment |
Exam Strategy
- Sultanate Dynasties: Remember order (Mamluk → Khalji → Tughlaq → Sayyid → Lodi) and key reforms of each.
- Alauddin Khalji’s market reforms and Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s token currency — most frequently asked.
- Akbar’s religious policy and Ain-i-Akbari — important for administrative understanding.
- Maratha administration — Ashta Pradhan council; Chhatrapati title.
- Bhakti-Sufi saints — Kabir, Guru Nanak, Tulsidas, Nizamuddin Auliya are commonly asked.
- Vijayanagara architecture — Hampi, Vittala Temple, Dravidian style features.
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