Modern Indian History and Freedom Struggle
British East India Company Rule
Arrival and Early Expansion
The British East India Company was granted a charter by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600 to trade with the East Indies. It set up its first factory (trading post) at Surat (1612) after Captain William Hawkins obtained permission from Emperor Jahangir.
Key early trading posts: Surat, Madras (Chennai, 1639), Bombay (1661 — acquired from Portugal as dowry when Charles II married Catherine of Braganza), Calcutta (1690, Job Charnock).
Bengal: The Starting Point
- Battle of Plassey (1757): Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar (commander of Siraj-ud-Daulah) to defeat the Nawab of Bengal — this gave the Company political control without formal war
- Battle of Buxar (1764): Defeated combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah (Awadh), and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II — British established right to collect revenue in Bengal
- Treaty of Allahabad (1765): Robert Clive obtained Diwani rights (right to collect land revenue) from Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II — Bengal’s revenue went to the Company
Administrative Structure
Robert Clive established the Dual Government system (1765–1772):
- British collected revenue but used Mughal administration to govern — created a corrupt system
Warren Hastings (1772–1785) tried to improve administration and reduce corruption. He was later impeached (1788–1795) for corruption — trial lasted 7 years.
Lord Cornwallis (1786–1793) introduced:
- Permanent Settlement (1793): Land revenue fixed permanently — created a class of Zamindars (landlords) who became proprietary owners; this system benefited landlords but increased pressure on peasants
- Revenue demand was fixed regardless of actual agricultural output
New Revenue Systems
| System | Region | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Permanent Settlement (1793) | Bengal, Bihar, Orissa | Revenue fixed permanently; Zamindars became owners |
| Ryotwari (1820) | Madras Presidency | Direct settlement with actual cultivators (Ryots); higher revenue burden |
| Mahalwari (1833) | Punjab, Western UP | village communities collectively responsible for revenue |
The Revolt of 1857
Causes
- Military grievances: New Enfield rifles required biting off the ends of greased cartridges (made of cow and pig fat — insulting to both Hindus and Muslims)
- Economic exploitation: Heavy land revenue, deindustrialization of Indian textiles
- Cultural humiliation: Moves like the 1856 order allowing widows to remarry (which some interpreted as interference with religion)
- Doctrine of Lapse: A doctrine (unproven legally) introduced by Dalhousie — if a princely state ruler died without a natural heir, the state would be annexed to British India. Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi, and others were annexed under this.
Outbreak
Mangal Pandey (34th Native Infantry at Barrackpore, March 1857) fired at British officers to protest the cartridge issue — sparked the rebellion.
May 10, 1857: Meerut soldiers (native cavalry) refused to use the new cartridges and killed British officers — rebellion spread rapidly.
Key Events
- Delhi: Proclaimed as the center of rebellion; last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed emperor of India (a symbolic gesture)
- Kanpur: Rani Lakshmibai (queen of Jhansi, whose kingdom was annexed) fought alongside Tantia Tope and led a fierce resistance
- Lucknow: Siege of Lucknow — British Residency under siege; the final relief by Sir Colin Campbell
- Jhansi: Lakshmibai’s defense (her famous quote: “I shall not surrender my inheritance”) — fought on horseback, dressed as a soldier
- Calcutta: British recaptured Delhi after heavy fighting; Bahadur Shah Zafar was captured, tried, and exiled to Rangoon (Yangon) — end of the Mughal dynasty
Suppression and Aftermath
The British brutally suppressed the rebellion — entire villages were burned, suspected rebels executed. Lord Canning took a slightly more conciliatory approach.
Queen’s Proclamation (1858): After the revolt, the British Crown directly took over administration from the East India Company:
- Governor-General became Viceroy (first: Lord Canning)
- British Raj formally established
- Promised not to interfere with Indian religion but also would not respect “native” rulers’ independence
- Increased military expenditure — Indian soldiers were disarmed and replaced by Gurkhas and Punjabi Muslims
Early Nationalist Movement (1885–1905)
Indian National Congress (INC)
Founded by A.O. Hume (retired British civil servant) and Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee (first president, 1885 Calcutta) at a meeting of 72 delegates.
Initial demands:
- Indianization of administration
- Reduction of taxes
- Freedom of speech and press
- Separation of executive and judiciary at lower levels
Moderates (1885–1905): Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji, Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee, Ranade. They believed in petitioning, requesting — constitutional means. Dadabhai Naoroji presented the “Drain Theory” — showing India’s wealth was being drained to Britain.
Extremists (1905–1920): Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal — believed in more aggressive methods. Their slogan: “Swaraj is my birthright.”
Partition of Bengal (1905)
Viceroy Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal (1905) into two provinces — ostensibly for administrative efficiency, actually to divide nationalist sentiment.
- East Bengal: Muslim-majority (East Pakistan later)
- West Bengal: Hindu-majority
Swadeshi Movement (1905): Nationalists responded with swadeshi (self-reliance) — boycotting British goods, promoting Indian-made products, establishing indigenous schools. Tilak’s famous quote: “Swaraj is my birthright and I will have it.”
Anti-Swadeshi: Curzon resigned in 1906 but the damage was done — nationalist sentiment was now irreversible.
The Freedom Struggle (1915–1947)
Gandhi’s Entry and Early Movements
Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in 1915 after 21 years in South Africa (where he developed Satyagraha — nonviolent resistance). He was immediately drawn into the Champaran Satyagraha (1917) — peasant movement against indigo plantation owners in Bihar.
Rowlatt Act (1919): British passed a law allowing indefinite detention without trial — Gandhi organized a Hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919. This triggered the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) — General Dyer ordered troops to fire on unarmed civilians at a walled garden in Amritsar. Over 1,500 died (official figures say ~379, but likely higher). This event radicalized the independence movement.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922)
The INC, under Gandhi’s leadership, launched the Non-Cooperation Movement:
- Surrendering titles and honors
- Boycotting British goods (especially cloth)
- Attending schools and colleges that were not government-run
- Participating in the Khadi movement (hand-spun cloth)
The movement was suspended after the Chauri Chaura incident (1922) — a mob in Uttar Pradesh burned a police station alive, killing 22 police officers. Gandhi believed nonviolence had been violated.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)
Gandhi’s March (Salt March, March 12–April 6, 1930): Gandhi walked 241 miles (388 km) from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi with 78 followers — they made salt from seawater in defiance of British law. Salt was heavily taxed.
Key INC resolutions:
- Poorna Swaraj (complete independence) — declared at Lahore Session (1929), Jawaharlal Nehru as president
- Civil Disobedience: Participants refused to pay taxes, made salt, boycotted foreign cloth
Round Table Conferences (1930–1932)
Three conferences held in London to discuss India’s future. The British refused to commit to independence; Gandhi refused to attend the second. The government arrested Gandhi and other leaders.
Government of India Act 1935
Brought provincial autonomy — elected governments in provinces. However, British retained control over key areas (defense, foreign policy, finance).
Quit India Movement (1942)
Gandhi gave a call — “Do or Die”: “We shall either be free or we shall die.” The British government responded by arresting the entire INC Working Committee on August 8, 1942.
Massive protests erupted across India — student strikes, underground movements, violence. Over 60,000 people were arrested. More than 10,000 died in police firings. The movement was suppressed but the British knew they could not rule India indefinitely.
Post-War Negotiations and Partition
Cripp’s Mission (1942): Stafford Cripp came with offers of dominion status after the war — rejected by INC.
Wavell Plan (1945): Proposed Simla Conference — failed.
Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): Proposed a three-tier confederation to keep India united — the plan collapsed.
Direct Action Day (1946): Muslim League called for direct action to secure Pakistan — communal violence erupted in Calcutta (August 1946), then in Noakhali (Bengal), then across North India.
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy, announced the partition plan. India would be divided into India and Pakistan. Radcliffe Line drawn by Cyril Radcliffe (two lawyers who had never been to India before).
Independence and Partition: August 15, 1947 — India became independent. Mohammed Ali Jinnah became Pakistan’s first Governor-General. Over 10–20 lakh (1–2 million) people died in partition-related communal violence; over 15 million were displaced.
Integration of Princely States: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (deputy PM) and VP Menon negotiated the accession of 562 princely states to India — Hyderabad (police action September 1948), Junagadh, Jammu & Kashmir.
Key Personalities
| Leader | Contribution |
|---|---|
| Mahatma Gandhi | Nonviolence, Satyagraha, Champaran, Khadi, Salt March, Quit India |
| Jawaharlal Nehru | First PM, foreign policy (non-alignment), industrialization |
| Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel | Integration of princely states, “Iron Man of India” |
| Subhas Chandra Bose | Founded Indian National Army (INA), “Give me blood and I will give you freedom” |
| Bhagat Singh | Revolutionary, hanged at age 23 in 1931 for Lahore Conspiracy Case |
| Dr. B.R. Ambedkar | Chairman of Drafting Committee, champion of SC/ST rights, wrote Constitution |
| Mahatma Gandhi | Satyagraha leader (Gandhi) — father of the nation |
CTET Exam Focus
- 1857 Revolt: Causes (cartridge, economic exploitation, doctrine of lapse), Mangal Pandey, Rani Lakshmibai, Bahadur Shah Zafar, Jallianwala Bagh
- INC Formation (1885): Moderates vs Extremists, Swadeshi movement, Partition of Bengal (1905)
- Gandhi’s movements: Champaran (1917), Non-Cooperation (1920), Civil Disobedience (1930, Salt March), Quit India (1942)
- Jallianwala Bagh (1919): Dyer, massacre, impact on nationalist sentiment
- Partition (1947): Mountbatten Plan, Radcliffe Line, violence, independence on Aug 15
- Integration of princely states: Patel and Menon, Hyderabad, Junagadh, Kashmir
Content adapted based on your selected roadmap duration. Switch tiers using the selector above.