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Medieval Indian History

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Medieval Indian History

The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)

Establishment

Muhammad Ghori (1173–1206) defeated Prithviraj Chauhan at the Second Battle of Tarain (1192) — the event that marks the beginning of Muslim rule in North India. His trusted slave general Qutb-ud-din Aibak captured Delhi in 1206 and established the Mamluk (Slave) dynasty, marking the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate.

Five Dynasties of the Sultanate

DynastyPeriodKey SultansNotable Contributions
Slave (Mamluk)1206–1290Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish, BalbanEarly state building, Qutub Minar started
Khilji1290–1320Alauddin Khilji, Malik KafurExpanding empire, market reforms, Alai Darwaza
Tughlaq1320–1414Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, Muhammad bin TughlaqCapital shift to Daulatabad, token currency disaster
Sayyid1414–1451Khizr KhanWeak, short-lived dynasty
Lodi1451–1526Bahlul Lodi, Sikandar LodiLast Afghan dynasty, Ibrahim Lodi defeated at Panipat 1526

Key Administrators

Iltutmish (1211–1236):

  • Ghiyas-ud-din Aibak’s son-in-law and successor
  • Organized the Iqta system (military feudalism): Land granted to nobles (iqtadars) in exchange for military service
  • Created a centralized administrative structure
  • Introduced the chaubara system — nobility divided into 40 nobles (chahalgani)
  • Patronized architecture — Qutub Minar completed under his reign

Balban (1266–1287):

  • Strict and autocratic ruler
  • Adopted the title “Sultan” with grandeur — symbolic of absolute power
  • Created an efficient spy network
  • Enforced strict discipline — women not allowed to appear in public
  • His rule established the image of a strong, centralized sultanate

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351):

  • Brilliant but eccentric ruler
  • Token currency: Introduced bronze coins to replace silver — led to counterfeiting and collapse of economy
  • Daulatabad: Shifted capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Maharashtra) and forced migration — expensive and unpopular, later reversed
  • Disbanded the army: Dismissed most soldiers to save money, leading to inability to defend borders
  • Despite failures, he was tolerant, established the postal system (dak), and supported arts

Firoz Tughlaq (1351–1388):

  • More conservative ruler
  • Built Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s palace (Delhi) and Firoz Shah Kotla fort
  • Regranted land to nobles, reduced taxes for farmers
  • Established a new canal from the Yamuna

Art and Architecture

  • Qutub Minar (started by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, completed by Iltutmish) — 72.5m tower, Delhi’s most iconic landmark
  • Alai Darwaza (Alauddin Khilji) — first example of true dome in Indian architecture
  • Ghiyasi Masjid (Ghazi Sikandar Sahib) — example of Tughlaq architecture
  • ** tomb of Balban** — ornate, influenced later Mughal architecture

The Mughal Empire (1526–1857)

Babur (1526–1530)

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (1483–1530), a Timurid prince from Fergana (Central Asia), invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat (1526). Babur was a direct descendant of both Timur (from father’s side) and Chengiz Khan (from mother’s side).

Key battles:

  • First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur vs Ibrahim Lodi — Lodi’s larger but disorganized army defeated
  • Battle of Khanwa (1527): Babur defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar (Rajput alliance) — Babur used artillery effectively
  • Battle of Ghaghra (1529): Babur defeated the Bengal Sultan

Babur’s memoir, Baburnama, is an extraordinary document — written in Chagatai Turkish with details of Indian flora, fauna, and people.

Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556)

  • Babur’s son, inherited a large but unstable empire
  • Defeated by Sher Shah Suri at the Battle of Chausa (1539) and Battle of Kannauj (1540)
  • Fled to Persia (Safavid court) for 15 years
  • Reclaimed throne in 1555 after Sher Shah’s death with help from his loyal nobles
  • Died in 1556 after falling from his library terrace

Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545)

  • Farid Khan, renamed Sher Shah by Humayun
  • Most capable administrator of medieval India
  • Built the Grand Trunk Road — ran from Bengal to Afghanistan, over 2,500 km; remains in use today
  • Established the dak (postal) system — fast couriers on horseback at regular stations
  • Introduced the rupiya (silver rupee) as a standardized currency — the name persists
  • Revenue reforms: Replaced iqta with a systematic land revenue collection (Ryotwari concept)
  • His administration became a model for later Mughal governance (Akbar adopted many of his policies)

Akbar (1556–1605)

Abu’l Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar came to the throne at age 13 (1556). His reign is considered the golden age of the Mughal Empire.

Key developments:

  • Battle of Panipat (1556): His general Bairam Khan defeated Hemu (Hemu’s 20th battle, won 18 consecutively) — Hemu was captured and beheaded
  • Territorial expansion: Extended empire across most of the subcontinent (except the Deep South)
  • Religious policy: Din-i Ilahi (1643) — a syncretic religious policy promoting tolerance; married Hindu princesses (Raja Birbal, Birbal was his advisor); Jain scholar Hem Chandra Pandit (Hemu) rose to his court
  • Mansabdari system: Ranking system for military and civil officials (mansabdars) with numerical rank (mansab) indicating salary and troop provision — 33 grades from mansab 10 to 10,000; dual system (darogha) — military and civil roles kept separate
  • Akbar’s Navratnas: Nine gems — Birbal, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Todar Mal, etc.
  • Revenue reforms: Ain-i Akbari recorded detailed land revenue assessments; introduction of Zabt system (record of cultivated land)

Major religious debates ( Ibadat Khana): Akbar invited scholars of all religions (Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Zoroastrian, Christian, Muslim) to discuss theology — signaled his openness to different faiths.

Jahangir (1605–1627)

  • Son of Akbar; ruled during initial phases of the Deccan campaigns
  • Married Nur Jahan (original name Mehr-un-Nisa) — powerful queen who influenced governance, designed the Taj Mahal’s layout
  • Patronized arts and paintings — miniature painting flourished
  • Wine lover; wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-i Jahangiri
  • Maintained peace with the Mughals; dealt with Sikh Guru Arjan’s execution (ordered by him, 1606)

Shah Jahan (1628–1658)

  • Known for monumental architecture — Taj Mahal (built for Mumtaz Mahal, his wife), Red Fort, Jama Masjid (Delhi), Moti Masjid (Lahore)
  • War in the Deccan (against Bijapur, Golconda) — led to huge military expenditure
  • Son Aurangzeb rebelled and imprisoned him in 1658; lived in Mausoleum of Mughal emperors (Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi) and Moti Masjid until death in 1666

Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

  • Strictly religious, reversed Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance
  • Imposed Jaziya (tax on non-Muslims) — reintroduced and heavily criticized
  • Fought prolonged wars in the Deccan (against Marathas under Shivaji) — drained treasury
  • Rebuilt Bibi ka Maqbara (in Aurangabad) as a tribute to his wife
  • Prolonged Deccan campaigns and religious policies led to instability
  • His death in 1707 is often considered the beginning of the end of the Mughal Empire

Later Mughal Decline

  • Successive weak rulers: Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712), Jahandar Shah (1712–1713), Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719), Muhammad Shah (1719–1748), Ahmad Shah (1748–1754), Alamgir II (1754–1759), Shah Alam II (1759–1806)
  • Invasion by Nader Shah (1739): Iranian king sacked Delhi, took the Peacock Throne, killed thousands — a humiliating blow
  • Battle of Plassey (1757): Robert Clive (British East India Company) bribed Siraj-ud-Daulah’s army commander Mir Jafar — British gained control over Bengal
  • Battle of Buxar (1764): British defeated combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah, and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II — British established political control

Medieval Deccan Kingdoms

Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)

  • Founders: Harihara I and Bukka Raya I (Kampili brothers who converted to Islam and then reverted to Hinduism under the influence of sage Vidyaranya)
  • Capital: Hampi (on the Tungabhadra River, Karnataka) — magnificent ruins still visible today (UNESCO World Heritage)
  • Peak under Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529): Most flourishing period, patronized arts and literature — Telugu language flourished
  • Notable: Four-tier temples (Dravidian architecture), large gopurams (gateway towers), storage tanks (Kalyani)

Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1526)

  • Founded by Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahmani (after breaking from the Delhi Sultanate)
  • Capital: Gulbarga (initially), then Bidar
  • Constant rivalry with Vijayanagara (the Deccan wars)
  • Fall: Broke into five smaller sultanates — Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar (called the Deccan Sultanates)

Bhakti and Sufi Movements

Bhakti Movement

A devotional movement emphasizing personal devotion (bhakti) to God as the path to salvation, rather than ritual or priestly mediation.

Key saints:

  • Narsi Mehta (Gujarat, 15th century): “Vaishnav Jan to” — Gujarat’s most famous bhajan
  • Namdev (Maharashtra, 13th–14th century): Maharashtrian saint, sung by Guru Nanak
  • Ramananda (North India, 14th–15th century): Teacher of Kabir; believed in equality of all humans before God
  • Kabir (1440–1518): Weaver from Varanasi; used simple Hindi (instead of Sanskrit) — challenged caste and ritual, syncretic (influenced both Hindu and Muslim traditions); Kabir’s dohas (couplets) still sung; was disciple of Ramananda
  • Guru Nanak (1469–1539): Founder of Sikhism; taught “Ik Onkar” (one God), equality, community (langar — community kitchen), rejected caste; traveled extensively (Mecca, Baghdad)
  • Tulsidas (1532–1623): Authored Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi — retelling of Ramayana; composed Hanuman Chalisa; believed Ram was the supreme god
  • Surdas (1478–1581): Devotee of Krishna, blind poet, wrote Sur Sagar (ocean of melodies)

Impact: Bhakti movement challenged caste hierarchy, promoted equality, used local languages instead of Sanskrit — democratized religion in India.

Sufism

Islamic mystical tradition — Sufis seek direct personal experience of God through love and devotion. Strong in India from 12th century.

Key Sufi orders:

  • Chishti order: Most influential in India — came from Central Asia via Afghanistan; Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chishti (Ajmer Sharif) brought it to India
  • Suhrawardi order: More political, associated with courts
  • Naqshbandi order: More conservative, emphasized strict adherence to Sharia

Major Sufi shrines (Dargahs): Ajmer Sharif (Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chishti), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi), Baba Farid (Faridkot), Baba Bulleh Shah (Pakistan).

Syncretic tradition: Sufi saints often bridged Hindu and Muslim communities — their shrines attracted followers from both religions.

CTET Exam Focus

  • Delhi Sultanate: Five dynasties, Iltutmish (iqta system), Muhammad bin Tughlaq (token currency), Tughlaq architecture
  • Mughal emperors: Babur (Panipat 1526), Humayun (defeated by Sher Shah), Akbar (Mansabdari, Din-i Ilahi), Shah Jahan (Taj Mahal), Aurangzeb (religious policy reversal)
  • Sher Shah: GT Road, dak system, standardized rupee, revenue reforms
  • Vijayanagara: Hampi ruins (UNESCO), Krishna Deva Raya, Dravidian architecture, gopurams
  • Bhakti saints: Kabir (equality, vernacular), Guru Nanak (Sikhism founder), Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Namdev, Narsi Mehta
  • Sufism: Chishti order, Ajmer Sharif, Sufi shrines as syncretic spaces

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