Ancient Indian History
The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE)
The earliest urban civilization in the Indian subcontinent, also called the Harappan civilization (named after Harappa, the first site discovered in 1921 in present-day Pakistan).
Sites
- Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan) — first discovered by archaeologist R.D. Banerji (1921)
- Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan) — most well-preserved, called “Mound of the Dead”
- Dholavira (Gujarat, India) — discovered 1968-69, recently (2021) declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site
- Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India) — most recent major site, in India
- Lothal (Gujarat, India) — discovered 1954, had a dockyard (earliest known in the world), shows maritime trade
Town Planning and Features
The Harappan cities show remarkable urban planning — a hallmark of this civilization:
- Grid pattern: Streets at right angles, laid out in squares/rectangles — most advanced planned cities of the ancient world
- Drainage system: Covered drainage channels running through the city, with manholes for cleaning — sophisticated sanitation for the time
- Larger houses on higher ground: Upper class lived on raised platforms; lower areas were working-class
- Standardized bricks: All bricks used were of uniform size (ratio 1:2:4) — evidence of organized governance
- Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro): Large tank likely used for ritual bathing — similar to a modern-day pool
- Granaries: Large storage areas for surplus grain — indicates organized agricultural management
Economy and Trade
- Agriculture: Wheat, barley, cotton, peas, sesame
- Domesticated animals: Cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo
- Trade: Both internal and external — exported cotton textiles, beads, pottery; imported copper (from Oman), lapis lazuli (from Afghanistan), carnelian from western Asia
- Weight and measures: Standardized weights and measures suggest fair trade practices
Society and Culture
- Script: Not yet deciphered — undeciphered Indus Valley script (has over 400 signs)
- Seals: Square or rectangular seals with animal motifs (unicorn, humped bull, elephant, rhinoceros) — used for trade identification
- No clear evidence of monarchy or warfare — unlike contemporary Mesopotamian societies
- Burial practices: Both burial pits and some evidence of cremation
- Artifacts: Bronze and terracotta figurines, jewelry (gold, beads), pottery with geometric patterns
Decline
The civilization declined around 1900–1300 BCE — possible causes include:
- Climate change (aridification — reduced monsoon)
- River course changes (Saraswati dried up)
- Epidemic diseases
- Invasion by Aryans (controversial theory — no strong evidence of violent destruction)
Vedic Period (c. 1500–600 BCE)
The Aryans
Indo-Aryan tribes migrated into the Indian subcontinent from Central Asia (steppe region), settling in the Punjab region initially, then moving east into the Gangetic plain. Their early settlements are described in the Rigveda (oldest text, composed c. 1500 BCE).
Rigveda — oldest text in Indo-European language, composed by sages (rishis). Contains 10 mandalas (books), 1,028 hymns, dedicated to various deities (Indra, Agni, Soma, Varuna).
Early Vedic Society
- Social organization: Tribal, pastoral — gana (tribe), ganas (people)
- Political organization: Tribal monarchy — elected king (rajan) with a council (sabha) and a larger assembly (samiti)
- Varna system (four classes): Initially not rigid occupational categories; later became hereditary
| Varna | Role | Vedic reference |
|---|---|---|
| Brahmin | Priest, teacher | From mouth of Purusha |
| Kshatriya | Warrior, ruler | From arms |
| Vaishya | Trader, farmer, cattle rearer | From thighs |
| Shudra | Service, labor | From feet |
Important: Early Vedic varna was based on occupation, not birth. Rigveda itself (Purusha Sukta hymn) has the speculative origin story, but societal flexibility was more evident in practice.
Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 BCE)
- Movement from Punjab to the Gangetic plain — more settled agriculture
- Iron used for tools and weapons (facilitated forest clearing)
- 16 Mahajanapadas (great kingdoms) emerge as large towns and cities grew
- Expansion of agriculture led to private property and accumulation of wealth
- Varna system became more rigid and hereditary
- Caste discrimination begins to take root
- Upanishads composed during this period (philosophical texts, part of Vedas)
Vedic Literature
- Vedas (4): Rigveda (hymns), Yajurveda (ritual formulas), Samaveda (melodies), Atharvaveda (spells)
- Brahmanas: Prose explanations of rituals
- Aranyakas: Forest texts
- Upanishads: Philosophical texts (Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Katha) — “Upanishad” means “sitting near” — secret teachings
Jainism and Buddhism
Jainism
Founder: Vardhamana Mahavira (599–527 BCE, or 468–400 BCE — historically debated), 24th Tirthankara
Core Principles:
- Ahimsa (non-violence): Absolute — cannot harm any living being; even unintentional harm counts
- Satya (truth): Always speak the truth
- Asteya (non-stealing)
- Aparigraha (non-possession/renunciation)
Teachings:
- World is eternal — no creation or destruction (unlike Buddhism)
- Soul exists in all living beings (infinite souls, bound by karmic matter)
- Karma as a physical substance (karmic particles) that accumulates and binds the soul
- Trilakshana (three gems): Samyak Darshana (right belief), Samyak Gyana (right knowledge), Samyak Charitra (right conduct)
- Salvation: Through Tapas (austerities) and Kevalya (omniscience)
Practice:
- monks and nuns: No property, celibacy, fasting to extreme, walking barefoot
- Shravaka (lay followers): Follow 12 anuvratas (lesser vows)
- Deadly to any organism — even water must be strained
Split: After Mahavira’s death, Jainism split into:
- ** Svetambara** (white-clad, accepts women as nuns, doesn’t practice nudity)
- Digambara (sky-clad/naked, considers women cannot attain moksha)
Patronage: King Chandragupta Maurya (3rd century BCE), King Kumarapala (12th century CE, Gujarat)
Buddhism
Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (born in Lumbini, Nepal, circa 563–483 BCE), known as the Buddha (“the awakened one”). Born a prince (Shuddhodana) in Shakya clan, Kapilavastu.
Enlightenment under Bodh Gaya tree (Bihar) at age 35 after seeing the Four Sights (old man, sick man, dead man, ascetic).
The Four Noble Truths (Ariya Sacca):
- Dukkha (Suffering exists): Life involves suffering — birth, aging, sickness, death, not getting what you want
- Samudaya (Cause of suffering): Tanha (craving/attachment) — desire for pleasure, existence, non-existence
- Nirodha (End of suffering): Suffering can end by eliminating craving
- Magga (Path to end suffering): Noble Eightfold Path
Noble Eightfold Path (Marga):
- Right Understanding (Samma Ditthi)
- Right Thought (Samma Sankappa)
- Right Speech (Samma Vaca)
- Right Action (Samma Kammanta)
- Right Livelihood (Samma Ajiva)
- Right Effort (Samma Vayama)
- Right Mindfulness (Samma Sati)
- Right Concentration (Samma Samadhi)
Other Key Teachings:
- Anicca (impermanence): Everything is temporary
- Anatta (no-self/atman): There is no permanent self or soul
- Middle Way: Avoid extremes of severe asceticism and sensual indulgence
- Nirvana: Liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara)
- Dependent Origination (Pratitya-samutpada): Everything arises dependent on causes and conditions
Spread of Buddhism:
- Emperor Ashoka (268–232 BCE) adopted Buddhism after Kalinga war — sent missionaries to Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, Central Asia
- Ashoka’s pillars: Spread Buddhist teachings across the subcontinent
- Buddhist councils: Rajagriha (after Buddha’s death), Vaishali, Pataliputra — disagreements led to split
Two major schools:
| Theravada | Mahayana | |
|---|---|---|
| Meaning | ”Teachings of the Elders" | "Great Vehicle” |
| Focus | Original teachings, strict monastic discipline | Accessible to all, multiple Buddhas |
| Texts | Pali Canon (Tipitaka) | Lotus Sutra, Heart Sutra |
| Goal | Arhat (worthy one) | Bodhisattva (one seeking enlightenment for all) |
| Regions | Sri Lanka, SE Asia (Thailand, Myanmar) | East Asia (China, Japan, Korea) |
Decline in India: Buddhism declined due to the revival of Vedic religion, loss of royal patronage, and Islam’s spread in India. However, it thrived in Sri Lanka, Tibet, Southeast Asia, East Asia.
CTET Exam Focus
- Indus Valley: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal (dockyard), Dholavira (UNESCO 2021), town planning, drainage, uniform bricks, undeciphered script, Great Bath, no clear evidence of warfare
- Vedic Period: Aryan migration, Rigveda (oldest text), varna origin, 16 Mahajanapadas, Iron age, Upanishads
- Jainism: Mahavira (24th Tirthankara), Ahimsa (non-violence), 5 vows, Svetambara vs Digambara
- Buddhism: Buddha’s life (Four Sights, Bodh Gaya), Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Anicca, Anatta, Nirvana, Ashoka’s role, Theravada vs Mahayana
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