Modern Indian History and Freedom Struggle
British East India Company Rule (1757–1858)
The Battle of Plassey and Buxar
The British East India Company’s territorial ambitions in India accelerated through two decisive events:
Battle of Plassey (1757): Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar, the commander-in-chief of the Nawab of Bengal (Siraj-ud-Daulah), to switch sides. The Nawab’s army, demoralized by Mir Jafar’s betrayal, was defeated by a smaller British force. This gave the Company political control over Bengal without a formal war.
Battle of Buxar (1764): The British defeated the combined forces of:
- Mir Qasim (who had become Nawab after replacing Mir Jafar)
- Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Awadh)
- Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II
This established the British right to collect revenue (Diwani rights) in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. From this point, the Company transitioned from a trading entity to a political power.
Revenue Systems
Permanent Settlement (1793): Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal. Land revenue was fixed permanently (not to be increased even if agricultural productivity improved). Zamindars (landlords) became owners of the land and had to pay revenue to the British government. This created a class of absentee landlords while peasant conditions worsened.
Ryotwari System (Madras Presidency, 1820): Direct settlement between the British and actual cultivators (Ryots). High revenue demands and frequent collection caused widespread peasant distress.
Mahalwari System (1833): Village communities (mahals) collectively responsible for land revenue — attempted to be fairer but also had problems.
The Revolt of 1857
Causes
- Military grievances: New Enfield rifles required soldiers to bite off the ends of greased cartridges. The grease was made from cow and pig fat — Hindus objected to cow fat, Muslims to pig fat. This was the immediate trigger.
- Economic exploitation: Heavy land revenue, deindustrialization of Indian textiles (British textiles destroyed local craft industries)
- Cultural and religious humiliation: Introduction of Widow Remarriage Act (1856), English education
- Doctrine of Lapse: A policy (not a legal principle) introduced by Lord Dalhousie — if a princely state’s ruler died without a natural male heir, the state would be annexed to British India. Satara (1843), Nagpur (1854), Jhansi (1854), and others were annexed.
- Administrative inefficiency and corruption
The Outbreak
Mangal Pandey (March 1857, Barrackpore): A soldier in the 34th Native Infantry fired at British officers to protest the cartridge issue — sparked the rebellion.
May 10, 1857, Meerut: Native cavalry (cavalry of the Bengal Army) refused to use the new cartridges and killed British officers. The British arrested them — the next day the rebellion spread rapidly through North and Central India.
Key Events
- Delhi: Proclaimed as the center of the rebellion; last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was declared emperor of India — a symbolic gesture to rally nationalist sentiment
- Kanpur: Rani Lakshmibai (queen of Jhansi, whose kingdom was annexed) fought alongside Tantia Tope. She was famously quoted: “I shall not surrender my inheritance.” Dressed as a soldier, she fought on horseback and died in battle.
- Lucknow: The British Residency was under a long siege; the final relief came from Sir Colin Campbell (later Lord Clyde)
- Jhansi: Lakshmibai’s fierce defense — the city fell after a siege
Suppression
The British suppressed the rebellion brutally. General Dyer ordered troops to fire on unarmed civilians at Jallianwala Bagh (April 13, 1919) — an event that occurred later but was part of the same colonial oppression. In 1857, entire villages were burned and suspected rebels executed without trial.
Aftermath (Queen’s Proclamation, 1858):
- The British Crown directly took over from the East India Company
- The title of Viceroy was created — Lord Canning was the first Viceroy
- The British promised not to interfere with Indian religion but also consolidated control
- The Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was captured, tried, and exiled to Rangoon (Yangon) in 1863
Early Nationalist Movement (1885–1905)
Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885)
Founded by A.O. Hume (retired British civil servant) and Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee (first president, 1885 Calcutta session). The first session had 72 delegates.
Initial demands: Indianization of administration, reduction of taxes, freedom of speech and press, separation of executive and judiciary.
Moderates (1885–1905): Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji, Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee, Gopal Hari Deshmukh. They believed in constitutional methods — petitions, resolutions, debates.
Dadabhai Naoroji’s Drain Theory: Showed mathematically that India’s wealth was being systematically drained to Britain through various mechanisms.
Extremists (1905–1920): Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal. Their slogan: “Swaraj is my birthright and I will have it.” Believed in more aggressive methods.
Partition of Bengal (1905)
Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal into two provinces (1905) — ostensibly for administrative efficiency, actually to divide nationalist sentiment.
- East Bengal: Muslim-majority
- West Bengal: Hindu-majority
Swadeshi Movement (1905): Nationalists responded with swadeshi (self-reliance) — boycotting British goods, promoting Indian-made products, establishing indigenous schools. Tilak’s famous quote: “Swaraj is my birthright and I will have it.”
The movement spread to Punjab, Maharashtra, Bengal — strikes, bonfire of foreign cloth, establishment of national schools.
The Freedom Struggle (1915–1947)
Mahatma Gandhi’s Entry
Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in 1915 after 21 years in South Africa (where he developed Satyagraha — nonviolent resistance). He was immediately drawn into the Champaran Satyagraha (1917) — peasant movement against indigo plantation owners in Bihar who forced peasants to grow indigo on a portion of their land at below-market prices.
Rowlatt Act (1919): British passed a law allowing indefinite detention without trial. Gandhi organized a Hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919. This triggered the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919).
Jallianwala Bagh (1919)
General Dyer ordered troops to fire on unarmed civilians (men, women, children) at a walled garden (Jallianwala Bagh) in Amritsar where they had gathered for a festival. Over 1,000–1,500 people died (official figures ~379, but actual much higher). The alley leading to the Bagh was narrow and people were trapped. People were ordered to crawl on their stomachs on the street as punishment.
Impact: This event completely transformed nationalist sentiment — from moderate constitutional demands to a mass, radical movement.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922)
Under Gandhi’s leadership, the INC launched the Non-Cooperation Movement:
- Surrendering titles and honors
- Boycotting British goods (especially cloth — Khadi movement)
- Attending schools and colleges that were not government-run
- Participating in the Khadi movement (hand-spun cloth)
The movement was suspended after the Chauri Chaura incident (1922) — a mob in Uttar Pradesh burned a police station alive, killing 22 police officers. Gandhi believed nonviolence had been violated and suspended the movement.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)
Gandhi’s March (Salt March, March 12–April 6, 1930): Gandhi walked 241 miles (388 km) from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi with 78 followers. They made salt from seawater in defiance of British law, knowing that salt was heavily taxed and the British monopoly on salt was deeply resented.
Key INC resolutions:
- Poorna Swaraj (complete independence) — declared at the Lahore Session (1929), Jawaharlal Nehru as president
- Civil Disobedience: Participants refused to pay taxes, made salt, boycotted foreign cloth
Government of India Act 1935
Brought provincial autonomy — elected governments in provinces. However, British retained control over defense, foreign policy, and finance.
Quit India Movement (1942)
Gandhi gave a call — “Do or Die”: “We shall either be free or we shall die.” The British government responded by arresting the entire INC Working Committee on August 8, 1942.
Massive protests erupted — student strikes, underground movements, violence. Over 60,000 people were arrested. More than 10,000 died in police firings. The movement was suppressed but the British knew they could not rule India indefinitely.
Partition and Independence (1947)
Wavell Plan (1945): Proposed Simla Conference — failed.
Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): Proposed a three-tier confederation to keep India united — the plan collapsed due to Muslim League opposition.
Direct Action Day (1946): Muslim League called for direct action to secure Pakistan — communal violence erupted in Calcutta (August 1946), then spread across North India (Noakhali, Bihar, Punjab).
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): Lord Mountbatten announced the partition plan. India would be divided into India and Pakistan. The Radcliffe Line was drawn by Cyril Radcliffe (two lawyers who had never been to India before, working with incomplete maps).
Independence and Partition: August 15, 1947 — India became independent. Mohammed Ali Jinnah became Pakistan’s first Governor-General.
Over 10–20 lakh (1–2 million) people died in partition-related communal violence. Over 15 million were displaced — the largest mass migration in human history.
Integration of princely states: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (deputy PM) and V.P. Menon negotiated the accession of 562 princely states to India — Hyderabad (police action September 1948), Junagadh, Jammu & Kashmir.
Key Personalities
| Leader | Key Contribution |
|---|---|
| Mahatma Gandhi | Nonviolence, Satyagraha, Champaran, Khadi, Salt March, Quit India |
| Jawaharlal Nehru | First PM, non-alignment policy, industrialization |
| Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel | Integration of princely states, “Iron Man of India” |
| Subhas Chandra Bose | Founded Indian National Army (INA), “Give me blood and I will give you freedom” |
| Bhagat Singh | Revolutionary — hanged at age 23 in 1931 |
| Dr. B.R. Ambedkar | Chairman of Drafting Committee, champion of SC/ST rights, architect of the Constitution |
CTET Exam Focus
- 1857 Revolt: Mangal Pandey, causes (cartridge, economic exploitation, doctrine of lapse), Rani Lakshmibai, Bahadur Shah Zafar
- Jallianwala Bagh (1919): General Dyer, massacre, impact on nationalism
- INC Formation (1885): Moderates vs Extremists, Swadeshi movement, Partition of Bengal (1905)
- Gandhi’s movements: Champaran (1917), Non-Cooperation (1920), Civil Disobedience (1930, Salt March), Quit India (1942)
- Partition (1947): Mountbatten Plan, Radcliffe Line, violence, August 15 independence, Patel and Menon for integration of princely states
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