Medieval Indian History
The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
Establishment
Muhammad Ghori (Muhammad of Ghazni) defeated Prithviraj Chauhan at the Second Battle of Tarain (1192) — this is considered the starting point of Muslim rule in North India. His slave-general Qutb-ud-din Aibak captured Delhi in 1206 and established the Mamluk (Slave) dynasty — this year (1206) marks the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate.
Five Dynasties
| Dynasty | Period | Key Sultans | Key Contributions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Slave (Mamluk) | 1206–1290 | Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish, Balban | Early state building, Qutub Minar begun |
| Khilji | 1290–1320 | Alauddin Khilji, Malik Kafur | Expanding empire to South India, market reforms |
| Tughlaq | 1320–1414 | Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, Muhammad bin Tughlaq | Capital shift, token currency disaster |
| Sayyid | 1414–1451 | Khizr Khan | Weak, short-lived |
| Lodi | 1451–1526 | Bahlul Lodi, Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi | Last Afghan dynasty; Ibrahim Lodi defeated at Panipat 1526 |
Key Rulers and Events
Iltutmish (1211–1236):
- Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s son-in-law and successor
- Organized the Iqta system (military feudalism): Land grants to nobles (iqtadars) in exchange for military service
- Created a centralized administrative structure with a council of 40 nobles (chaubara)
- Qutub Minar completed during his reign
Balban (1266–1287):
- Stern, autocratic ruler — created a culture of strict discipline
- Took the title “Sultan” with great power and grandeur — symbolic of absolute authority
- Built an efficient spy network
- Deputy governor (Naib) system: Maintained control over distant provinces
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351):
- One of the most controversial rulers — brilliant but erratic
- Token currency experiment: Introduced bronze coins to replace silver — led to massive counterfeiting and economic collapse
- Daulatabad experiment: Shifted capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Maharashtra) and forced entire population to migrate — expensive, later reversed
- Disbanded the army: Dismissed most soldiers → weakened defense
- However, he also established a postal system (dak), was generally tolerant, and promoted arts and scholarship
Firoz Tughlaq (1351–1388):
- Conservative ruler who maintained stability
- Built Firoz Shah Kotla fort in Delhi
- Regranted land to nobles in exchange for service
- Reduced land revenue demand — popular with peasants
Art and Architecture
- Qutub Minar (73 m): Started by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, completed by Iltutmish — the tallest brick minaret in the world
- Alai Darwaza: Built by Alauddin Khilji — first building with a true dome in India
- Ghiyasi Masjid (Ghiyasi — “dedicated to God”): Tughlaq architecture — plain but monumental
- Tughlaq architecture: Massive walls, sloping towers, use of grey sandstone
- Tombs of rulers: Balban’s tomb in Delhi (ornate arches)
The Mughal Empire (1526–1857)
Babur (1526–1530)
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (1483–1530), a Timurid prince from Fergana (Central Asia), descended from both Timur (father) and Chengiz Khan (mother). He invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat (1526).
Key battles:
- First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur’s smaller but well-disciplined army with artillery vs Lodi’s large but disorganized army → Babur wins decisively
- Battle of Khanwa (1527): Babur defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar (Rajput alliance) — Babur’s artillery proved decisive
- Battle of Ghaghra (1529): Babur defeated the joint forces of the Delhi Sultanate of Bengal and the ruler of Awadh
Babur’s memoir: The Baburnama (written in Chagatai Turkish) is a remarkable document — it includes detailed observations about Indian flora, fauna, people, and climate.
Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556)
- Inherited a large but unstable empire
- Defeated by Sher Shah Suri at the Battle of Chausa (1539) — Humayun fled; his brother Hamida Banu was captured
- Battle of Kannauj (1540): Humayun was again defeated — fled to Persia (Safavid court) where he spent 15 years
- Returned to India in 1555 after Sher Shah’s death with help from loyal nobles
- Died in 1556 after falling from the terrace of his library — legendary but sad death
Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545)
- Farid Khan, renamed Sher Shah by Humayun
- The most capable administrator of medieval India
- Built the Grand Trunk (GT) Road — ran from Bengal to Afghanistan (over 2,500 km) — still in use today as NH-1
- Established the dak (postal) system with horse-mounted couriers at regular stations (mail service)
- Introduced the rupiya (silver rupee) as a standardized currency — the word “rupee” comes from this
- Revenue reforms: Systematic land revenue collection based on measurement of land; replaced iqta system
- His administration became the model for later Mughal governance (Akbar adopted many of his policies)
- Died in 1545 in battle when a gunpowder stash exploded during siege of his own fort (Kalinjar)
Akbar (1556–1605)
Abu’l Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar came to the throne at age 13. His reign is considered the golden age of the Mughal Empire.
Key developments:
- Battle of Panipat (1556): His general Bairam Khan defeated Hemu (Hemu had won 20 consecutive battles, including capturing Delhi from the Mughals) — Hemu was captured and beheaded
- Territorial expansion: Extended Mughal control across most of the subcontinent
- Religious policy: Din-i Ilahi (though it was never a formal state religion) — promoted tolerance; had debates at Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) where scholars of all religions participated; married Rajput princesses
- Mansabdari system: Military-civilian ranking system — all officials (mansabdars) were given a rank (mansab 10 to 10,000) indicating their salary and the number of troops they were expected to maintain; each rank had a dual number (zat and sawar) indicating personal status and cavalry strength
- Land revenue reforms: Recorded detailed agricultural data in the Ain-i Akbari; introduced the Zabt system (measurement and recording of cultivated land)
Akbar’s Navratnas (nine gems): Birbal, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Todar Mal, etc. — most famous was Birbal (Raja Birbal — believed to be a fictional character in popular imagination, but may have been a real court official).
Jahangir (1605–1627)
- Son of Akbar; ruled during the early Deccan campaigns
- Married Nur Jahan (original name Mehr-un-Nisa) — the most powerful queen in Mughal history; she designed the Taj Mahal’s layout
- Patronized arts and miniature painting — Mughal painting flourished
- Known for his autobiography Tuzuk-i Jahangiri (in Persian) — candid and honest account
- Ordered the execution of Sikh Guru Arjan (1606) — controversial decision
- His son Shah Jahan rebelled in later years
Shah Jahan (1628–1658)
- Known for monumental architecture — the peak of Mughal architecture
- Taj Mahal (built 1632–1653): Built in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal; considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World
- Red Fort (Delhi): Built as the new capital (Shahjahanabad)
- Jama Masjid (Delhi): Largest mosque in India — built by Shah Jahan
- Moti Masjid (Lahore): “Pearl Mosque” — built in the Red Fort complex
- War in the Deccan (against Bijapur, Golconda) — huge military expenditure weakened the treasury
- Deposed by his son Aurangzeb in 1658 and imprisoned in Moti Masjid of the Red Fort until his death in 1666
Aurangzeb (1658–1707)
- Strictly religious, reversed Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance
- Imposed Jaziya (poll tax on non-Muslims) — widely criticized
- Fought prolonged wars in the Deccan against Marathas under Shivaji — depleted the treasury
- Built the Bibi ka Maqbara (Aurangabad) — often called the “Taj of the Deccan” but it’s much smaller
- His death in 1707 marks the beginning of the end of the Mughal Empire
Later Mughal Decline
- Invasion by Nader Shah (1739): The Iranian king sacked Delhi, looted the Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor diamond, killed thousands — a humiliating blow
- Battle of Plassey (1757): Robert Clive (British East India Company) bribed Mir Jafar to defeat Siraj-ud-Daulah — British gained political control over Bengal
- Battle of Buxar (1764): British defeated the combined forces of Mir Qasim (Awadh), Shuja-ud-Daulah, and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II — established British right to collect revenue and govern
Medieval Deccan Kingdoms
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
- Founders: Harihara I and Bukka Raya I (brothers from Kampili) — legend says they were converted to Islam by the Tughlaq army and then reconverted to Hinduism by sage Vidyaranya
- Capital: Hampi (on the Tungabhadra River, Karnataka) — UNESCO World Heritage Site (1986)
- Peak under Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529): Most flourishing period; he was a scholar himself; patronized Telugu language and literature (all four Vedas were translated into Telugu)
- Architecture: Dravidian-style temples with elaborate gopurams (gateway towers), pillared halls (mandapas), large temple tanks (kalyanis)
- Decline after 1565: Defeated at the Battle of Talikota (1565) by the Deccan Sultanates alliance — capital was plundered and destroyed
Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1526)
- Founded by Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahmani (broke away from the Delhi Sultanate)
- Capital: Gulbarga (initially), then Bidar (shifted by Mohammad bin Tughlaq’s pressure)
- Constant rivalry with Vijayanagara — wars over the Krishna River region
- Fell into five Deccan Sultanates after 1526: Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Bidar — which continued until absorbed by the Mughals in the 17th century
Bhakti and Sufi Movements
Bhakti Movement
A devotional movement emphasizing personal devotion (bhakti) to God as the path to salvation — rejecting ritual, priestly mediation, and caste barriers.
Major saints:
| Saint | Region | Key Teachings |
|---|---|---|
| Narsi Mehta | Gujarat (15th century) | “Vaishnav Jan to” — his bhajan became Gujarat’s identity song |
| Namdev | Maharashtra (13th–14th century) | Marathi saint; his teachings are part of Guru Granth Sahib |
| Ramananda | North India (14th–15th century) | Teacher of Kabir; believed in equality — “All souls are equal before God” |
| Kabir (1440–1518) | Varanasi (weaver) | Used simple Hindi, not Sanskrit; challenged caste; “God is one — Nirgun” (formless); disciple of Ramananda; His dohas (couplets) are famous |
| Guru Nanak (1469–1539) | Punjab | Founder of Sikhism; taught “Ik Onkar” (one God); rejected caste; community kitchen (langar); traveled to Mecca, Baghdad, Gaya |
| Tulsidas (1532–1623) | Varanasi | Authored Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi; composed Hanuman Chalisa; believed Ram is the supreme god |
| Surdas (1478–1581) | Braj (blind poet) | Devotee of Krishna; wrote Sur Sagar (Ocean of Melodies) — 100,000+ verses |
Impact: Bhakti challenged caste hierarchy, promoted equality, used local languages instead of Sanskrit — democratized religion.
Sufism
Islamic mystical tradition — Sufis seek direct personal experience of God through love and devotion. It came to India in the 12th century.
Major Sufi orders:
- Chishti order: Most influential — came from Central Asia via Afghanistan; brought to India by Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chishti (Ajmer Sharif)
- Suhrawardi order: More political, associated with royal courts
- Naqshbandi order: Conservative, emphasized strict adherence to Sharia
Major shrines (Dargahs): Ajmer Sharif (Moin-ud-din Chishti), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi), Baba Farid (Faridkot), Bulleh Shah (Pakistan).
Syncretic tradition: Sufi shrines attracted followers from all religions — created bridges between Hindu and Muslim communities. Bhakti saints and Sufi pirs often shared spiritual practices.
CTET Exam Focus
- Delhi Sultanate: Five dynasties, Iltutmish (iqta), Muhammad bin Tughlaq (token currency), Tughlaq architecture
- Mughal emperors: Babur (Panipat 1526), Humayun (fled to Persia), Sher Shah (GT Road, dak, rupee), Akbar (Mansabdari, Din-i Ilahi), Shah Jahan (Taj Mahal, Red Fort), Aurangzeb (Jaziya)
- Vijayanagara: Hampi (UNESCO), Krishna Deva Raya, gopuram architecture, Talikota (1565)
- Bhakti saints: Kabir (equality, vernacular Hindi), Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism, “Ik Onkar”), Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas)
- Sufism: Chishti order, Ajmer Sharif, Sufi shrines as syncretic spaces
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