Delhi Sultanate & Mughal Rule

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Delhi Sultanate — Key Facts for BPSC

The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE) was established by Qutb-ud-din Aibak after Muhammad Ghori’s death, creating the first Muslim kingdom in North India.

Core Facts:

• 1206: Qutb-ud-din Aibak proclaimed himself Sultan at Lahore; this marks the beginning of the Sultanate period
• Five dynasties: Slave (1206–1290), Khilji (1290–1320), Tughlaq (1320–1414), Sayyid (1414–1451), Lodi (1451–1526)
• Iltutmish (1211–1236): Most capable early Sultan; organized the empire; introduced the Chalisa (40) — a corps of loyal slave officers
• Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296–1316): Expanded to South India; market reforms (price control); first Sultan to issue Copper tanka coins
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351): Capital shift to Daulatabad; token currency; agricultural reforms; harsh but capable
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388): Built Firoz Shah Kotla; irrigation projects; income tax; friendly to nobles
• Timur’s invasion (1398): Devastated Delhi; ended Sayyid dynasty effectiveness

⚡ Exam tip: BPSC frequently asks about market reforms of Ala-ud-din Khilji, Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s failed policies, and Iltutmish’s administrative innovations.

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🟡 Standard — Regular Study (2d–2mo)

Standard content for students with a few days to months.

Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE)

Establishment & Early Dynasties

The Slave Dynasty (1206–1290)

Muhammad Ghori (Mohammad Ghori) defeated Prithviraj Chauhan at the Second Battle of Tarain (1192) — this marks the beginning of Muslim political rule in North India. After his death in 1206, his slave-turned-general Qutb-ud-din Aibak established the Slave dynasty.

Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210):

• Built the Qutub Minar (started — completed by Iltutmish) in Delhi
• Issued the Bait-us-Salam coins (silver tanka)
• Died playing chaugar (polo) — “Hazar Dinar” paid to the widow for his burial

Iltutmish (1211–1236) — Most Capable Sultan:

• Son-in-law of Aibak (married his daughter); established succession by nomination
• Organized the Iqta system (Iqta = land grant in exchange for military service)
• Created the Chalisa (40) — corps of Turkic slave nobles (Mamluk) loyal to him
• Introduced the silver Tanka (standard coin) and gold Dinar; Delhi Sultanate became a monetary economy
• Patronized the Sufi saint Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki (whose shrine he visited every Thursday)
• Shifted capital from Lahore to Delhi — significant for future governance
• First Sultan to receive the title of “Sultan” from the Caliph (Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad)

Razia Sultana (1236–1240) — India’s Only Female Sultan:

• Iltutmish’s daughter; broke convention by refusing to be called “Sultana” — ruled as Sultan
• Appointed a non-Turkic Abyssinian slave, Jamal-ud-din Yaqut as Ariz-i-Mamlik (Chief of Army)
• Her own Turkish nobles (including Iltutmish’s son Nasir-ud-din Mahmud) opposed her — she was forced to abdicate
• Married Iltumsh’s slave Malik Ikhtiyar-ud-din to strengthen her position
• Killed near Kaithal (Haryana) in 1240 while fleeing with Yaqut
• BPSC frequently asks about Razia Sultana — she remains a unique figure in Indian history

Balban (1266–1287):

• Established strict justice system (Diwan-i-Hisba); enforced moral discipline
• Created the Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing the Sultan’s feet) rituals — elevating Sultan to divine status
• Theory of kingship: Sultan is the “Shadow of God on Earth”
• Crushed the Mewati robbers and the Bengal rebellion
• Built the Alai Darwaza (incomplete at his death)

The Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320)

Jalal-ud-din Khilji (1289–1296):

• Seized power from Balban’s grandson; forgave his enemies — a policy of ** reconciliation
• First Sultanate ruler to expand into South India (Gujarat, Jhansi, Dwaraka)
• His nephew Ala-ud-din Khilji murdered him to take the throne

Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296–1316) — The Greatest Khilji Sultan:

• Brilliant military commander; expanded Sultanate from Bengal to the Deccan
• Conquests: Gujarat (defeated Karna, King of Gujarat — took immense plunder), Ranthambore, Chittor (took queen Padmini — led to the Jauhar tradition), Malwa, Nagpur
• Market Reforms (Mahayana System):
  • Appointed Shahna-i-Mandi (Market Controller) to regulate prices
  • Price control: Mustard oil, salt, cotton, grain — fixed prices announced
  • Market spies (Thanadars) monitored traders for hoarding
  • All merchants registered with the state
  • This was the first recorded state intervention in markets in Indian history
• Military Reforms: Increased army size from 10,000 to 300,000; paid soldiers in cash from treasury
• Introduced the copper Dinar (token coinage) — first time copper coins were used alongside gold and silver
• Attacked Mongols repeatedly; won the Battle of Kili (1305) — beheaded 7,000 Mongol soldiers
• Built the Alai Darwaza and began the Qutub Minar’s second story; planned but never completed the Alai Minar

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351) — Brilliant but Harsh:

• Known for failed experiments: capital shift to Daulatabad (Yadgir), token (copper) currency (later abandoned due to forgery), Diwani system
• Dak (postal) system: Char-Daha — one courier station every 4 miles
• Created the Diwan-i-Kohi (Revenue Department) for agricultural development
• His Qir Khan (Chief Justice) position — religious authority
• Extremely intelligent but oppressive — murdered 30,000 people of Delhi after an uprising
• Faced the Bengal rebellion, Taghlak dynasty’s Mongol pressure, and Deccan revolts

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414)

Ghiyath-ud-din Tughlaq (1320–1325):

• Founded the Tughlaq dynasty; built Tughlaqabad Fort in Delhi
• Died at the Agra gate of his own palace — some accounts suggest his son Jauna Khan (later Muhammad bin Tughlaq) was responsible

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388):

• Kind and generous ruler — popular but weak militarily
• Irrigation projects: Built canals from Western Yamuna; restored the Grand Trunk Road (begun by Sher Shah)
• Land revenue: Only collected from land under cultivation — no collection from barren land
• Introduced Khalisa lands (crown land) for regular revenue
• Built Firoz Shah Kotla (Delhi); patronized Ibn Battuta (the Moroccan traveler who visited during his reign)
• Ibn Battuta’s Rihla (travel account) is a crucial source for Sultanate administration
• His weakness invited Timur’s invasion (1398)

Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451)

• After Timur’s destruction, the Sayyid brothers (Khizr Khan, Mubarak Khan) established weak rule
• Khizr Khan was a subordinate of Timur; ruled from Delhi but with little authority
• Known for the cultivation of arts but political decline

Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526)

• Bahlul Khan Lodi (1451–1489): Founded the Lodi dynasty; revived Afghan nobility
• Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517): Great builder; built Agra city; introduced 、明、清 (rice husk) — no; introduced the Dohcha style of architecture
• Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526): Defeated at the First Battle of Panipat (1526) by Babur — ending the Sultanate

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Mughal Empire (1526–1857)

Babur (1483–1530, ruled 1526–1530)

• First Battle of Panipat (1526): Ibrahim Lodi’s army (about 100,000 soldiers, 1000+ elephants) vs Babur’s army (~12,000). Babur used artillery (cannons) and the Tulughma formation (encircling wings) — decisive victory
• Babur’s army included Otoman Turkish gunners and Afghan nobles who defected
• Ibrahim Lodi was killed; Babur entered Delhi
• Battle of Khanwa (1527): Defeated Rana Sanga (Mewar’s Rajput alliance); Sanga died in exile
• Battle of Ghagra (1529): Defeated the Afghan sultan Muhammad Lodi and the East Bengal forces
• Wrote Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Baburi) in Chagatai Turkish — a remarkable autobiography

Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556)

• Lost the empire to Sher Shah Suri (defeated at Battle of Kanauj, 1540)
• Fled to Persia (Iran); lived in exile for 15 years
• Restored empire with Persian Safavid help after Sher Shah’s death (1540–1555)
• Died in Delhi in 1556 after falling from the terrace of his library (Sher Mandal)

Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545)

• Not technically a Mughal — a Sur dynasty founder who displaced Humayun
• Established the Sur Empire; known for brilliant administration
• Roads: Rebuilt and expanded the Grand Trunk Road; organized wagon posts (Sarai system)
• Coins: Introduced the silver Rupiya (which became the standard rupee; the British later adopted this)
• Iqta system reform: Land revenue at 1/3 of produce; Zabt (cultivated area) system
• Created Jama Dak (postal/courier system)
• Built Rohtas Fort (Pakistan), Qila-i-Kuhna mosque in Delhi
• His administration became the model for the Mughal administration

Akbar (1556–1605) — The Greatest Mughal

Akbar ascended at age 13 after Humayun’s death; his regent ** Bairam Khan** won the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Hem Chandra Vikramaditya (Hemu).

Military Conquests:

• Rajputana: Married Jodha Bai (Mewar’s Rajput princess — daughter of Raja Udai Singh I); this alliance with Mewar was significant as he won without destroying
• Gujarat (1572–73): Captured from Muzaffar Shah; Akbar visited once
• Bengal (1574): Captured from the Afghan Rebels; but fully annexed only after 1576
• Kashmir (1586), ** Sindh** (1590s), Balkh (1586) — extended to Central Asia briefly

Religious Policy:

• Abolished the Jizya tax on Hindus (1564) — major policy shift
• Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri — invited saints of all religions for debates
• Promoted Suleh-i-Kul (universal peace) — syncretic religious policy
• Invited Abul Fazl and Faizi to his court; studied Ramayana and Mahabharata through learned scholars
• Din-i-Ilahi (Tauhid-i-Ilahi): A syncretic religion he founded (not强制); lasted only during his reign
• Married Mariam-uz-Zamani (Jodha Bai) — promoted Rajput-Mughal unity

Administration:

• Mansabdari System: All nobles assigned a Mansab (rank) — numeric rank (Zat) and Sawar (cavalry) rank; 33 grades from 10 to 5000 (later 7000)
• This was a merit-based military bureaucracy — combined civil and military service
• Ain-i-Dharmak — revenue from religious grants
• Nine-tier mansabdari system controlled by Diwan-i-Azam (later Mir Bakhshi)

Architectural Patronage:

• Built Fatehpur Sikri (1571–1585) — capital; built for Sufi saint Salim Chishti
• Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri (1602)
• Red Fort (Delhi) — later completed by Shah Jahan
• Humayun’s Tomb — built by his widow Hamida Banu Begum (precursor to Taj Mahal)

Jahangir (1605–1627)

• Son of Akbar; married Nur Jahan (Mumtaz Mahal was later Shah Jahan’s wife)
• Known for his Kashmir paintings and the Nur Jahan era (joint rule with Nur Jahan)
• Treaty of Nur Jahan with the Mughals — she managed internal affairs while he was ill
• Negotiated with the East India Company (EIC) — allowed them to establish a trading post at Surat (1615) through Sir Thomas Roe
• Assassinated his own general Abul Fazl on his father’s orders

Shah Jahan (1628–1658)

• Built the Taj Mahal (1632–1653) in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Banu Begum)
• Built the Red Fort (Delhi) and ** Jama Masjid** (Delhi)
• Built the Moti Masjid in Lahore Fort
• Faced the War of Succession among his four sons — Aurangzeb imprisoned him (1658)
• Spent his last 8 years in Agra Fort under house arrest

Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

• War of Succession (1657–58): Defeated and killed his brothers — Dara Shikoh (most beloved by Shah Jahan, killed in 1659), Shuja (fled to Arakan, died), Murad Baksh (executed)
• Imprisoned father Shah Jahan in Agra Fort
• Last of the Great Mughals; his death marks the beginning of the empire’s decline

Major Policies:

• Reimposed Jizya on Hindus (1679) — widely resented
• Policy of expansion: Annexed Bijapur (1689) and Golconda (1687) — Deccan campaigns
• Destroyed temples: Many temples demolished across North India (Kashi Vishwanath, Keshav Dev, etc.); BUT he also repaired several temples (e.g., Benares, Gwalior)
• Deccan campaigns: Fought the Marathas (Chatrapati Shivaji’s successors), Siddis, and the Mysore kingdom
• Rajput policy failure: Mewar under Rana Chunda, Marwar — increasingly rebellious

Why Aurangzeb Failed:

• Deccan wars drained the treasury (Maratha guerrilla warfare)
• Jizya reimposition increased Hindu resentment
• His faranchand (revenue farming) system — revenue collectors paid fixed sums to the state, causing peasant distress
• No successor could maintain the empire’s unity
• Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur executed (1675) — antagonized the Sikhs
• Maratha insurgency under Shivaji (and later the Peshwas) in the Deccan

⚡ Study strategy: Focus on administrative systems (Iqta, Mansabdari), architectural achievements, religious policies of different rulers, and the War of Succession.

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🔴 Extended — Deep Study (3mo+)

Comprehensive coverage for students on a longer study timeline.

Iqta System — Detailed Analysis

• Iqta = land granted in exchange for military service (not ownership)
• Iqtedar (holder) collected revenue from the assigned land
• Advantages: Military loyalty, administrative efficiency, no feudal lords
• Disadvantage: Over time, iqtas became hereditary (feudalization); revenue declined

Mansabdari System — Detailed

Element	Details
Mansab	Rank from 10 to 5,000 (later 7,000)
Zat	Personal rank/status
Sawar	Cavalry rank (horses maintained)
Mansabdars	About 2,200 at Akbar’s peak
Classes	33 grades in nine tiers

• Ain-i-Akbari (part of the Akbarnama, written by Abul Fazl) gives detailed accounts
• Mansabdari was not hereditary — rank could be increased or decreased based on performance
• Zat and Sawar did not always match (e.g., Zat 5000 could have Sawar 5000 or 1000)

Revenue Systems in Mughal India

• Zabt: Land revenue based on measured cultivated area; revenue assessed in money
• Ryotwari: Individual peasant (Ryot) paid directly to the state
• Mahalwari: Village community collectively responsible for land revenue

BPSC Previous Year Questions

• Iltutmish’s innovations — Chalisa, Tanka coinage, nomination system
• Ala-ud-din Khilji’s market reforms
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s experiments (capital shift, token currency)
• Razia Sultana — the only female ruler of Delhi Sultanate
• Sher Shah’s administration and roads
• Mansabdari system and its features
• Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy and its failure
• Taj Mahal — who built it, for whom, and architectural features

Important Distinctions for BPSC

• Slave dynasty rulers: Qutb-ud-din Aibak → Iltutmish → Razia Sultana → Balban
• Khilji revolution: Changed from slave/central Asian nobles to Afghan/Hindu nobles
• Mughal vs Sultanate: Mughals were more tolerant, had sophisticated administration, art and architecture flourished
• Mughal decline: Started with Aurangzeb, not with any single event

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